This is a summary of the book "What Is This Thing Called Science?", 4th edition, for the first year course Psychology and Science at Leiden University, 2017/2018. I summarized the chapters and the parts of the chapters we had to read. It's a pretty detailed summary, so it contains everything you ne...
Chapter 1: science as knowledge derived from the facts
of experience
‘Science is derived from the facts’. When it is claimed that science is special because it is based on the
facts, facts are presumed to be claims about the world that can be directly established by a careful,
unprejudiced use of the senses. No personal opinions or speculative imaginings. Observation careful and
unprejudiced secure, objective basis for science. Reasoning from factual basis to laws and theories that
constitute scientific knowledge: when sound, resulting knowledge can itself be taken to be securely
established and objective. 17th century: strategy of taking the facts of observation seriously as basis for
science was first seriously adopted. Prior, knowledge largely based on authority and Bible. Challenged by
appeal to experience by pioneers. Empiricists and positivists. Empiricists: all knowledge should be derived
from ideas implanted in the mind by way of sense perception. Positivists: knowledge should be derived
from the facts of experience. Logical positivists: close attention to logical form of relationship between
scientific knowledge and facts. Components of the stand on the facts assumed to be the basis of science in
the common view:
a) Facts are directly given to careful, unprejudiced observers via the senses.
b) Facts are prior to and independent of theory
c) Facts constitute firm and reliable foundation for scientific knowledge.
Have some difficulties.
Seeing is believing
Empiricist view: human observer has more or less direct access to knowledge of some facts about the world
insofar as they are recorded by the brain in the act of seeing. Two normal observers viewing same object or
scene from same place will see the same thing. Seriously misleading.
Visual experiences not determined solely by the object viewed
Common view: facts about the external world are directly given to us through sense of sight. What is seen
would be determined by nature of what is looked at. Not the case. Example: drawings where what one sees
changes frequently. Perceptual experiences not uniquely determined by the images on retina. Would seem
that there is sense in which what an observer sees is affected by past experience, knowledge and
expectations. Experienced and skilled observer doesn’t have perceptual experiences identical to those of
untrained observer. Only things with which observer has direct and immediate contact are experiences,
these vary. What we see in various situations remains fairly stable. Single, unique, physical world exists
independently of observers. See same thing, not identical perceptual experiences.
Observable facts expressed as statements
Constituting the fact. Distinguish statements of facts from the perceptions that might occasion the
acceptance of those statements as facts. Knowledge is derived from facts: must have statements in mind,
neither perceptions nor objects. Back to statements about facts. Clearly not the case that statements
describing observable states of affairs are given to observers via the senses. Must have possession of
conceptual framework and knowledge. Appropriate facts, formulated as statements, presuppose quite a lot
of knowledge. Recoding of observable facts requires more than reception of stimuli, requires knowledge of
appropriate conceptual scheme and how to apply it.
, 2
Why should facts precede theory?
First establish facts and then build theory to fit them. Both fact that perceptions depend to some extend on
prior knowledge and hence on our state of preparedness and expectations and fact that observation
statements presuppose the appropriate conceptual framework indicate that it is a demand that is impossible
to live up to. Idea that the adequacy of our scientific knowledge should be tested against the observable
facts would make no sense if, in proper science, the relevant facts must always precede the knowledge that
might be supported by them. Formulation of observation statements presupposes significant knowledge and
search for relevant observable facts in science is guided by that knowledge. The fact that knowledge is
necessary for the formulation of significant observation statements still leaves open the question of which
of the statements so formulated are borne out by the observation and which are not. Formulation of the
statements describing those facts are knowledge-dependent. Idea that scientific knowledge should be based
on facts established by observation need not be undermined by acknowledgement that search for and
formulation of those facts are knowledge-dependent.
The fallibility of observation statements
Problems: different observers do not necessarily have same perceptions when viewing the same scene,
disagreements. Further difficulties concerning reliability of the observational basis of science from ways in
which judgements about adequacy of observation statements draw on presupposed knowledge in a way that
renders those judgements fallible. If the knowledge that provides the categories we use to describe our
observations is defective, observation statements that presuppose those categories are similarly defective.
Judgement of the truth or otherwise of an observation statement depends on knowledge that forms the
background against which judgement is made. Correction of mistake about observable facts make possible
by improved knowledge and technology. Any view to the effect that scientific knowledge is based on the
facts acquired by observation must allow that facts as well as knowledge are fallible and subject to
correction and that scientific knowledge and the facts on which it might be said to be based are
interdependent.
Chapter 2: observation as practical intervention
Observation: passive and private or active and public?
Common way: passive and private. Information flows in and is recorded. Perception itself to directly
validate the facts. Inadequate. Range of things that are done to establish validity of perception. Doubt
validity of what seems to be the case on the basis of our perceptions. Actions we can take to remove the
problem. Observation, but disagreements. Make practical interventions to clear up the problem. What could
be done to check authenticity of appearances. Point that action can be taken to explore adequacy of claims
put forward as observable facts has consequence that subjective aspects of perception need not be an
intractable problem for science. Perceptual judgements of individuals arrange observable situation in
such a way that reliance on such judgements is minimized/eliminated.
Galileo and the moons of Jupiter
‘Objectified’ his observations, used a scale to measure. Recorded daily histories. Used quantitative
measures and qualitative observation. Verified by independent observers, also able to predict further
positions. Use of practical, objective tests.
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