Inleiding Communicatiewetenschap Woorden zoeken = CTRL + F
A first look at communication theory - literatuur
Chapter 1: Launching your study of communication theory
Communication: The relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a
response.
A set of Hunches:
This means we aren’t yet sure we have the answer.
- Theories always involve an element of speculation. It’s risky, because it is beyond
wisdom
- Especially when you first launch it
- Not one hunch, but plural: a theory will also give some indication of scope and makes
you question other things
Three types of theory:
> Net: the focus is on the entire world: you collect as much information as you can in order
to create a general theory.
> Lens: the focus is zoomed in on some particular features of communication while ignoring
other features/pushing them to the background.
> Maps: the focus is on unfamiliar terrain. This map is made to navigate some part of the
topography of human relationships.
Five features of communication:
> Messages: talking and listening, writing and reading, performing and witnessing, or, more
generally, doing anything that involves ‘messages’ in any medium or stadium. Messages are
also known as the core of communication.
> Creation of Messages: the form of the text is usually constructed, invented, planned,
crafted, constituted, selected or adopted by the communicator. People tend to text more
rather than talking face-to-face or calling the order person.
> Interpretation of Messages: messages never interpret themselves; the communicator
always does. However, the receiver can always interpret the message differently than what
the creator actually meant, since the words aren’t spoken, written, or acted out.
Communication scholars believe that words don’t mean things, only people do - meaning
that if the text should be interpreted another way, the creator would’ve let the receiver know.
It is hard for people to recognize emotion in a simple text. A simple text such as “ok” can be
interpreted as annoyed, angry or moody, meanwhile it can mean something innocent such
as happy, relieved or neutral. Words and other symbols are polysemic (open to multiple
interpretations).
> A Relational Process: Communication is a process, since communication is never the
same - it’s flux like a river. It can only be described with reference to what went before and
what is yet to come. A simple text is not the entire story. If someone sent a simple text and
you ask what they mean by it, you expect the creator to answer the question. However, if
they refuse to answer or don’t really answer it, you easily interpret the text in a different way
than the creator initially meant. And that is because communication always changes like a
process and doesn’t freeze. Communication is a relational process, not only because it
happens between two or more people, but the nature of the connections between people will
be affected by interpretation of texts.
,> Messages That Provoke a Response: Communication could also be defined as ‘the
provoking of a response’. Messages that don’t awaken any emotional, cognitive or
behavioural reaction, seem to be pointless to be called ‘communication’, since there hasn’t
been any response from the receiver to the creator.
Chapter 2: Talk about Theory
Objective approach: The assumption that truth is singular, committed to uncovering
cause-and-effect relationships.
Interpretive approach: The assumption that there are multiple truths or meanings.
An objective approach (Glenn): Advertising guru Tony Schwartz claims that successful
persuasive messages evoke past experiences that create balance between message
content and a person’s thoughts or feelings, mainly used in advertisements. Using a cute
storyline in the ad triggers the emotions of the person watching, making it so that the viewer
wants the product being presented.
An interpretive approach (Marty): Advertisements are based on birth-death-rebirth patterns,
the use of mythical archetypes cause people to feel attracted to the ad, because they can
relate to them (such as Jesus resurrecting after three days of lying in the tomb). However, he
still left, because he “died”. What admakers are trying to do in these ads is that the products
that are presented can never leave, because it’s not a living thing. Those products will
always be there by your side, causing a feeling of comfort - something that is appealing for
people, so they buy the product.
Objective approach Interpretive approach
(Quantitative research) (Qualitative research)
Ways of knowing Discovering the truth Creating multiple realities
(hypothesis is testable and (every group has their own
is eventually true) truth)
Human nature Determinism Free will
(reaction depends on origin) (everyone has their own
interpretation and reaction -
subjectivity)
Highest value Objectivity Emancipation
(researchers want to find (researchers listen to each
truth themselves) other with their theories to
find truth)
Purpose of theory Universal laws Interpretive guides
(predicting how people will (giving meaning to the
react and interpret, based content of media,
on true examinations) understanding &
categorising)
Objective scholars: universal laws, but there is never any proof. One truth only.
Interpretive scholars: trying to understand and explain texts. It's not about proving, but about
understanding. Multiple truths.
,Behavioural scientist: a scholar who applies the scientific method to describe, predict, and
explain recurring forms of human behaviour.
Rhetorician: a scholar who studies the ways in which symbolic forms can be used to
identify with people, or to persuade them toward a certain point of view
Chapter 3: Weighing the Words
When is an objective theory good?
1. Prediction of future events: An objective theory is credible when it fulfils the twin
objectives of scientific knowledge. The theory predicts what will happen in the future,
and it explains the reasons for that outcome. However, prediction is possible only
when we are dealing with things we can see, hear, touch, smell or taste over and
over again.
2. Explanation of data: A good objective theory explains an event or human behaviour.
The theory should bring clarity and draw order out of chaos.
3. Relative simplicity: A good objective theory is as simple as it can be, without any
complexibility. However, relative simplicity doesn’t necessarily mean ‘easy to
understand’. Even trained physicists are struggling to fully comprehend the theory of
relativity.
4. Hypotheses that can be tested: A good objective theory is testable. A prediction
can be wrong, but then there is a way to demonstrate the error. Scientist Karl Popper
saw this as the defining feature of scientific theory. But some theories are so loosely
stated that it’s impossible to imagine empirical results that could disprove their
hypotheses. If you can’t prove a theory false, there is a hard time proving a theory
right also.
5. Practical profit: Over time, a good objective theory is useful. Nothing is as practical
as a good theory. Before thinking a theory is irrelevant, make certain you understand
it and consider other people’s insight on the theory and what use they provided from
it.
6. Quantitative research: Almost all scientific research depends on a comparison of
differences: this group compared to that group, this theory compared to that theory,
etc. More than quantitative methods, objective theorists use experiments and surveys
to test their predictions.
When is an interpretive theory good?
1. Clarification of values: A good interpretive theory brings people’s values into the
open. The theorist actively seeks to acknowledge, identify or unmask the ideology
behind the message under scrutiny. Not only that, interpretive theorists should be
willing to reveal their own ethical commitments.
2. New understanding of people: Interpretive theories are good when it offers fresh
insight into the human condition. Researchers seek to gain new information by
analysing the activity they regard as uniquely human-symbolic interaction. An
interpretive theorist examines a one-of-a-kind speech community that exhibits a
specific language style. By analysing this group’s communication practice, the
researcher hopes to develop an understanding of local knowledge or member’s
unique rules for interaction.
3. Aesthetic appeal: Capture readers’ imaginations, there is room for creativity.
, 4. Community of agreement: Interpretive theories must always be supported by other
scholars. People should start discussing it.
5. Reform of society: It generates change in society.
6. Qualitative research: Textual analysis: a research method that describes and
interprets the characteristics of any text.
Chapter 5: Symbolic Interactionism > INTERPRETIVE (Mead)
Symbolic interactionism: our thoughts, self-concept and the community we live in are created
through communication between individuals (language is essential in this process, because
language gives meaning to experiences we have) > all the thoughts we share have a
combined effect on society at large & together they form the reality we live in (interactively,
socially, constructed) > this is interpretive, since there is no prediction possible and it cannot
be tested.
Social reality is constructed by people, by giving meanings to objects in reality.
- The meanings that we give through language affects how we behave and interact
with other people and things in reality.
But how do we create meaning?
- This happens through communication. Language is the source of meaning. When
people give meaning to something by having the same interpretation, it becomes real
and consequent. Consequent means that the meaning that has been given to
something causes a rather unpleasant result.
(Example: an old lady is wearing an old jacket with holes in it. Someone calls her
homeless or weird. This will have consequences. The consequence might be a
different treatment, because she is “worth less” than other people, or she might feel
sad about it, because it’s not a nice thing to say. It is also possible for the lady to start
acting homeless or weird, since she is labelled as those things).
- The idea is that the words we use act as a symbol for a concept of shared
meaning > all the ideas that come to our mind when we hear the label,
influences the way we act to this labelled person.
Minding: an inner dialogue used to test alternatives, rehearse actions and anticipate
reactions before responding; self-talk.
Looking-glass self: the mental self-image that results from taking the role of the other; the
objective self; me
The symbols or concepts we learn are also needed for cognitive thinking > without learning
words, we would not be able to think.
- “Language is the software that activates the mind.”
Further research based on the theory ‘symbolic interactionism’:
- Socialisation process: how do concepts develop in societies and subsequently
influence our behaviour (people are currently wearing masks against the coronavirus,
but that all started because we influenced each other by wearing a mask).
