Dit is een samenvatting van het boek Cognitive Psychology van Gilhooly. Ik heb hiermee dit vak zelf gehaald met een 8, dus ik hoop dat jij hier ook zo'n hoog cijfer mee haalt!
Motor system: includes the components of the central and peripheral nervous system
along with the muscles, joints and bones that enable movement
- Woodworth: different stages for planning and control of movement
- The impulse phase: initiated the movement and was planned in advance of the start
of the movement (what limbs to move etc.)
- The control phase: vision is key to controlling the accuracy of the final endpoint
position
- Degrees of freedom problem: the issue that the structure of joints (gewrichten) and
muscles in the body provide a redundant (overbodig) system > when performing a task
the joints do not need to all move in all possible ways
- Inverse problem: problem in vision where there are more than one interpretation of the
3D world given the 2D image imagination
Theories of movement planning:
1) Equilibrium point hypothesis: theory of motor control that emphasizes how the problem
of control can be simplified by taking into account muscle properties > can effectively
explain how we can begin a movement with our body in one stable posture and end in
another stable posture (saloon-doors)
- Criticism: it would only be a successful strategy for certain ranges of movements
and muscle properties
2) Dynamical systems: approach to motor control emphasizes interaction between the
body and the environment and uses special mathematics that describe how a system’s
behavior changes over time
3) Optimal control theory: views motor control as the evolutionary or developmental result
of a nervous system that tries to optimize organizational principles > define the best
movement:
- Planning the least amount of torque-change at the joints (torque: measures
rotational force such as when muscles apply a force for a limb to rotate about a joint
centre)
- Planning a movement to be the smoothest motion between two points
- Planning the least amount of spatial errors in task achievement
- Forward model: used to predict the relationship between actions and their
consequences; given a motor command the forward model predicts the resulting
behavior of the body and the world > deals with the world as it is now based on
sensory information that is a tenth of a second old and with motor commands that will
take effect in muscles a tenth of a second in the future
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, Optimal control theory cycle
- Control policy: takes current state estimate as input and the motor command as output;
provides set of rules that determine what to do given a particular goal and state estimate
- Motor command: information about how the body is supposed to move
- Noise: is introduced due to imperfect neural transmission along the pathway from brain
to body
- Forward model: takes motor command as input and outputs a prediction of the sensory
consequences of the motor command
- Body and the world: takes motor command (that has been degraded by noise) and
produces an action which creates new sensory information
- Sensory information: changes to the body and the world create sensory information
- Noise: sensory information is also corrupted by physiological noise arising from
imperfect sensing and neural transmission
- Sensory integration: takes all sensory information and the prediction of the forward
model as input and outputs an estimate of the current state of the system
- State estimate: provides an internal representation of what is the current state of the
body and world and this is input to the control policy
- Different brain
areas involved
with motor control:
- Forward model is based in the cerebellum
- Sensory integration is based in the parietal cortex
- Control policy is based in the basal ganglia
- Experiment Wolpert et al.: recreating a force by a device or by someone else > results
showed that we underestimate the application of our own force; we can accurately match
forces when mediated by an external device, but when we match forces generated by our
own body we are greatly inaccurate
Producing complex actions
Action sequences:
- Associative chain theory: behaviorist theory that explains how sequences of action arise
from linking together associations between individual action components; the end of one
particular action is associated with stimulating the start of the next action in the sequence
- Problem: it has difficulty with general sequences such as when an element of the
sequence repeats
- Problems with language:
1) Slip of the tongue, where words are switched in a sentence
2) Coarticulation, where the target sound is being articulated at the same time that
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, future sounds are being prepared
Hierarchical models of action production:
- Parallel processing: the ability to divide the process of solving a problem into multiple
parts and to work simultaneously on each part
- Miller at al.: TOTE unit (test-operate-test-exit) > continuously test whether a
condition was met and then exit once the condition was satisfied (e.g. when you want
a matching pair of socks: ‘test’ if you have one sock, ‘operate’ to pick up another
sock, ‘test’ to see if they match and if you found a match you have to ‘exit’
- Estes: proposed hierarchies of control elements which activated other control
elements at the levels below; corresponds to an action schema
- Recurrent networks: a type of artificial neural network with connections between units
arranged so to obtain a cycle of activation; this allows a temporal context to be designed
into the computation
- Interactive activation: the pattern of network activity generated by excitatory and
inhibitory interactions of feature detectors and object representations; when one unit of a
hierarchy is selected for activation, other units at the same level of hierarchy are inhibited
- Choking: the occurrence of inferior performance despite striving and incentives for
superior performance > factors of self-confidence, control, anxiety, arousal, and effort
relate to reductions of performance
- Conscious processing theory (CPH): performance is modelled to decrease because
increasing anxiety leads to a disruption of automatic processing > it involves
conscious awareness of individual components of an action
- Processing efficiency theory (PET): performance is modelled to decrease because
other activities such as cognitive anxiety begin to consume resources and this leaves
less resources available for performing actions > it allows increasing the effort for a
task as a means to compensate for the loss of cognitive resources due to anxiety
Brain damage and action production:
- Damage to the frontal cortex can lead to dysexecutive syndrome and action
disorganization syndrome: where patients make frequent errors in producing action
sequences
- Cooper and Shallice: model of action sequence > found that when the top-down
signal was weakened and the environmental conditions were sufficient to trigger a
schema, the model performed preservation errors such as repeatedly picking up and
putting down a spoon for example
- Apraxia: a person loses the ability to perform activities that they are physically able and
willing to do
- Ideomotor apraxia: inability to perform hand gestures and mime tool use when
verbally instructed, even though they know what they have been instructed to do
Action representation and perception
Theories of action representation:
- Cognitive sandwich: used to describe the view that cognition is like the filling of a
sandwich > surrounded on one side by a slice of perception and on the other side by a slice
of action (like motor control and sequence planning)
- Ideomotor theory: arose from the philosophical question of how the mind could control the
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