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Weeks 1-7 Exam Summary
In-Depth summary of everything in the PSS course without tutorials/previous exam
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12Definitions
Philosophy of the Social Sciences:
This field is concerned with the nature and methodology of the social sciences. It investigates the validity of social science theories and the reliability of the methods used to test
them. The debate between positivism and hermeneutics is central to this field. Positivism argues for the application of methods from the natural sciences to study social
phenomena, while hermeneutics emphasises understanding the meanings and motives behind social phenomena.
Rationalism
Rationalism posits that reason is the primary source of knowledge and superior to sensory experience. It argues that certain truths exist and that the intellect can directly grasp
these truths because it has a kind of innate knowledge already imprinted on it.
Empiricism
Empiricism is a philosophical theory that knowledge comes only or primarily from sensory experience. It emphasises the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory
perception, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or traditions.
Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attribute, fact and
value. It is traditionally divided into ontology (the study of existence), cosmology (the study of the world), and epistemology (the study of knowledge and understanding).
Nativism
Nativism is a philosophical doctrine proposing that certain concepts or mental structures are innate and exist in the mind prior to learning. It argues that the mind is not a blank
slate at birth, as empiricism claims, but that it is pre-equipped with certain knowledge.
Nominalism
Nominalism is a philosophical view that denies the existence of universals and abstract objects, but affirms the existence of individual or particular things. It argues that only
physical particulars in space and time are real, and that universals exist only post res, that is, subsequent to particular things.
Positivism
Positivism is a philosophical approach that advocates for the application of the methods of the natural sciences to social sciences. It emphasises observation and classification of
data and the formulation and testing of hypotheses in order to understand and predict social phenomena.
Hermeneutics
Hermeneutics is a branch of knowledge that focuses on the interpretation and understanding of textual material. It originated as a method for interpreting religious texts, but
has been applied to a wide range of texts including literature, law, and history. Hermeneutics emphasises the context in which a text was created, including the culture, history,
and intentions of the author. It also acknowledges that the interpreter brings their own context and perspectives to the interpretation. This approach is often contrasted with
positivism, which seeks objective and universal truths.
Methodological Monism
Methodological monism is the belief that there is one universally applicable scientific method or set of criteria for judging a theory’s worth or truth. This is often associated with
positivism, which asserts that the methods of the natural sciences should be used in all areas of investigation. This view is contrasted with methodological pluralism, which holds
that different methods are appropriate for different kinds of inquiry.
Dualism
In the context of methodology, dualism refers to the belief that there are two fundamentally different kinds of things or principles in the universe, and therefore two different
kinds of methods for studying them. This is often associated with the distinction between the natural sciences, which study the physical world and use empirical methods, and
the humanities, which study human culture and use interpretive methods.
Holism
Holism is the belief that systems and their properties should be viewed as whole, not just as a collection of parts. It emphasises the interdependencies of system components and
their interactions. In the social sciences, holism might involve studying an entire community or society in order to understand a particular phenomenon within it.
Induction
Induction is a method of reasoning that involves moving from a set of specific observations to reach a general conclusion. It is often used in scientific research to develop theories
that explain observed phenomena. For example, if we observe that the sun rises every morning, we might use induction to conclude that the sun will always rise in the morning.
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Determinism
Determinism is the philosophical belief that all events, including moral choices, are determined completely by previously existing causes. Determinism is often contrasted with
free will, which is the belief that individuals have the power to make choices that are genuinely their own and not determined by natural or divine laws.
Week 1: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle
Socrates
Socratic Method
The Socratic method, also known as the method of Elenchus or Socratic debate, is a form of argumentative dialogue between individuals, based on asking and answering
questions. This method was developed by the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates and is still employed today in a variety of pedagogical contexts.
Socrates often described his method as a form of “midwifery” because it is employed to help his interlocutors develop their understanding in a way analogous to a child
developing in the womb. He saw himself not as a teacher but as an ignorant inquirer, and the series of questions he asked were designed to show that the principal question he
raised (for example, “What is piety?”) is one to which his interlocutor has no adequate answer.
Socratic Examination of Essences
Socrates used his method to examine instances of beauty, justice, courage, love, truth, and knowledge to determine their essences. The essence of a concept, according to Socrates,
is its unique identifying property, shared by all instances of that concept. For example, to find out the essence of beauty, one needs to uncover what all beautiful things have in
common.
This method of questioning was intended to reveal inconsistencies and contradictions in an individual’s beliefs, thereby leading them to realise their own ignorance and
encouraging them to seek true knowledge. Through this process, Socrates aimed to foster critical thinking and promote self-reflection.
Heraclitus: Nothing Is, Everything Changes
Heraclitus, an ancient Greek pre-Socratic philosopher, is known for his doctrine of change being central to the universe. He believed in the unity of opposites and the concept of
change. He viewed the world as constantly in flux, always “becoming” but never "being". This perspective suggests that due to the ever-changing nature of appearances, most
people are not able to attain knowledge. Only those who are capable of grasping the hidden and fundamental law, or Logos, behind appearances can arrive at knowledge.
Parmenides: Everything Is, Nothing Becomes
Parmenides of Elea, another pre-Socratic Greek philosopher, held a contrasting view. He believed that our senses mislead us into thinking that things are changing all the time.
For example, the wall in front of you now appears white, but in an hour or so, when the sun sets, it will be glowing violet. However, Parmenides argued that underlying all the
change and movement that we pick up with our senses, there is a permanent and unchanging reality. He asserted that nothing ever really changes; if it does, it no longer is.
Hence, knowledge pertains to a hidden order beyond transient appearances. As senses are a misleading guide to reality, we must rely on reason to discover the unchanging truths
about eternal reality.
Exploring Humans: Between Scepticism and Scientism
Scientism
Scientism is a philosophical stance that advocates the application of the methods of the natural sciences to all areas of inquiry, including philosophy, the humanities, and the
social sciences. It asserts that empirical science constitutes the most authoritative worldview or the most valuable part of human learning to the exclusion of other viewpoints. It
is often associated with a critique of the more extreme expressions of logical positivism and has been used as a criticism of the dogmatic endorsement of scientific methodology
and the reduction of all knowledge to only that which is measurable.
‘The Mind As A Crooked Mirror’
Francis Bacon, an English philosopher and statesman, used the metaphor of a crooked mirror to describe the human mind. He suggested that the mind does not reflect reality as
it is, but distorts it, much like a crooked mirror would distort the reflection of an object. This metaphor was part of his critique of the human tendency towards bias and
misconception. His works often delve into the complexities of the human mind and its darker recesses. He believed that the grotesque imagery in his work can be seen as a
manifestation of the repressed, unconscious aspects of the human psyche.
Achieving a ‘God’s Eye’ Perspective: Plato
Plato, the ancient Greek philosopher, proposed the idea of achieving a God’s eye perspective. This concept suggests that one can attain a comprehensive, objective view of reality,
much like how a God would perceive the world. This perspective is often associated with the pursuit of absolute truth and the idea of Forms, which Plato posited as the perfect,
eternal, and unchanging ideals that physical objects merely attempt to imitate.
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Scepticism
Scepticism is a philosophical viewpoint that questions the validity of our knowledge claims. Sceptics challenge the adequacy or reliability of these claims by asking what
principles they are based upon or what they actually establish. They have questioned whether some such claims really are, as alleged, indubitable or necessarily true, and they
have challenged the purported rational grounds of accepted assumptions6. In everyday life, practically everyone is sceptical about some knowledge claims; but philosophical
sceptics have doubted the possibility of any knowledge beyond that of the contents of directly felt experience.
Viewpoints on Scientism
Postmodernists/Relativists
Postmodernists and relativists often critique the traditional understanding of scientific knowledge. They argue that scientific knowledge is not objective or universal, but is
instead constructed and shaped by social, cultural, and political factors. They challenge the idea that scientific facts can be separated from their interpretation and suggest that
different interpretations can coexist.
Rationalists
Rationalists believe that reason is the primary source of knowledge. They assert that a class of truths exists that the intellect can grasp directly. There are, according to the
rationalists, certain rational principles—especially in logic and mathematics, and even in ethics and metaphysics —that are so fundamental that to deny them is to fall into
contradiction.
Empiricists
Empiricists argue that knowledge comes from experience, not pure reason. They believe that all knowledge is a posteriori, meaning that it is derived from experience. This view
of knowledge is in contrast with rationalism, which posits that there are innate ideas that are independent of experience.
Francis Bacon’s Views on Empiricism
Francis Bacon, often referred to as the father of empiricism, argued for the possibility of scientific knowledge based only upon inductive reasoning and careful
observation of events in nature. He believed that science could be achieved by the use of a sceptical and methodical approach whereby scientists aim to avoid
misleading themselves.
George Berkeley and David Hume on Sensory Perception and Objective Reality
Both Berkeley and Hume were empiricists who emphasised the role of sensory perception in the acquisition of knowledge. Berkeley, in particular, argued that we directly
perceive ordinary objects and that our sensory experiences provide us with knowledge about the world. Hume, on the other hand, emphasised the role of experience and
observation, and was particularly interested in understanding the principles that govern human thought.
Exploring Humans: Rationalism and Empiricism in Antiquity
What is Knowledge?
Epistemology, the philosophy of knowledge, is a branch of philosophy that studies the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge. It deals with questions such as what
knowledge is, how it is justified, and how rational belief is formed. Epistemology also explores the sources and scope of knowledge, and the challenges and problems that it faces.
How Can We Justify Knowledge?
The justification of knowledge is a central problem in epistemology. It involves determining the criteria for what constitutes knowledge and how we can validate our knowledge
claims. This often involves a balance between scepticism, which questions the validity of our knowledge claims, and dogmatism, which asserts the certainty of our knowledge.
First Justification: Rationalism
Rationalism posits that genuine knowledge of reality is derived primarily from the proper use of reasoning, intellect, or rational faculties. This perspective emphasises the
inherent power of human intellect to grasp abstract truths that transcend sensory experiences. Proponents of rationalism, such as Plato, argue that certain fundamental truths,
such as the existence of eternal Forms or universal concepts, cannot be apprehended through sensory perception alone. Plato's allegory of the cave illustrates this concept,
suggesting that humans are akin to prisoners in a cave, perceiving only shadows of reality until they use reason to ascend to a higher realm of understanding. In this view, rational
intuition and logical deduction play pivotal roles in uncovering immutable truths about the nature of reality.
Rationalists also contend that relying solely on sensory experiences can lead to illusions and misconceptions, as sensory perceptions are subject to distortion and variability. Plato
famously criticised the reliability of the senses, asserting that they merely provide a fleeting and imperfect glimpse of the material world. For rationalists, true knowledge arises
from the contemplation of universal principles and logical deductions rather than empirical observations alone.
Second Justification: Empiricism
Empiricism stands in contrast to rationalism by asserting that knowledge is primarily acquired through sensory experience and empirical observation of the external world.
According to empiricists, such as Aristotle, the senses serve as reliable indicators of reality, and knowledge is derived from systematically gathering and analysing empirical data.
Aristotle emphasised the importance of empirical observation in his scientific investigations, advocating for a systematic approach to studying the natural world.
Empiricists argue that the human mind is initially a tabula rasa, or blank slate, devoid of innate knowledge, and that all knowledge is acquired through sensory experiences.
Aristotle's emphasis on empirical observation and classification laid the foundation for scientific inquiry, highlighting the importance of direct observation and systematic study
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in understanding the natural world. Unlike rationalists, who prioritise abstract reasoning and intellectual insight, empiricists place greater emphasis on the role of sensory
perception and empirical evidence in acquiring knowledge.
Plato’s Views on Rationalism
Plato, the ancient Greek philosopher, is widely considered a rationalist due to his beliefs about knowledge and its acquisition. He proposed the idea of Forms, which are perfect,
eternal, and unchanging ideals that physical objects merely attempt to imitate. He also used the allegory of the cave to illustrate the concept of achieving a higher realm of
understanding through reason.
Criticisms of Sensory Perceptions in Rationalism
Rationalists often critique the reliability of sensory perceptions. They argue that sensory experiences can lead to illusions and misconceptions, as they are subject to distortion
and variability. Plato, for instance, criticised the reliability of the senses, asserting that they merely provide a fleeting and imperfect glimpse of the material world. For rationalists,
true knowledge arises from the contemplation of universal principles and logical deductions rather than empirical observations alone.
Plato
Plato stands as one of the foundational figures in the history of philosophy, revered for his profound contributions to various philosophical inquiries. His dialogues, which
feature his teacher Socrates as a central figure, provide invaluable insights into topics ranging from ethics and politics to metaphysics and epistemology. Through these dialogues,
Plato not only immortalised the teachings of Socrates but also introduced his own philosophical ideas, shaping the course of Western thought for centuries to come.
Rationalist Epistemology
Plato's epistemological stance aligns with rationalism, a philosophical perspective that prioritises reason and intellect in the pursuit of knowledge. He challenges the notion that
knowledge is solely derived from sensory perception, arguing instead that genuine understanding arises from rational reflection and intellectual insight. Plato's dialogues often
depict Socrates engaging in dialectical exchanges to uncover deeper truths through logical reasoning, highlighting the central role of reason in the acquisition of knowledge.
Plato delves into metaphysical inquiries concerning the nature of existence and reality. Drawing inspiration from earlier philosophers such as Heraclitus and Parmenides, he
explores questions about the fundamental structure of the universe and the underlying principles governing change and permanence. Plato's metaphysical framework, as
articulated in dialogues like the "Phaedo" and the "Timaeus," lays the groundwork for understanding the relationship between the visible world of appearances and the
transcendent realm of Forms.
Socratic Question: What is Knowledge - Aporia & World of Appearances/Forms
At the heart of Plato's philosophical inquiry lies the Socratic question: What is knowledge? Plato grapples with this question by challenging perceptions-based understanding
and advocating for a deeper form of knowledge rooted in reason and objective truths about reality. Through dialectical inquiry, Plato prompts his interlocutors to critically
examine their beliefs and assumptions, leading them to confront the limitations of sensory perception and embrace intellectual humility in the pursuit of truth.
Plato's dialogues often involve dialectical inquiry, a method characterised by cross-examination and questioning. Through this rigorous process, Plato aims to stimulate critical
thinking and provoke moments of aporia, or perplexity, in his interlocutors. These moments of intellectual doubt serve as starting points for philosophical inquiry, prompting
individuals to reevaluate their beliefs and explore deeper truths about the nature of reality and knowledge.
Distinction Between World of Appearances and Forms: Central to Plato's metaphysical framework is the distinction between the world of appearances and
the realm of Forms. The world of appearances, characterised by sensory phenomena and transient forms, is contrasted with the realm of Forms, which comprises
eternal and immutable truths. Plato uses the allegory of the Cave to vividly illustrate this metaphysical distinction, depicting the journey from ignorance to
enlightenment as individuals ascend from the illusory realm of appearances to the realm of pure Forms.
Plato on Perception
Plato agreed with Heraclitus and Cratylus that the perceived world is in constant flux. This means that our perceptions, and hence our knowledge, will vary from moment to
moment and person to person. Knowledge becomes relative to the observer and his own perceptions and beliefs.
Plato disagreed with Heraclitus and Protagoras on the idea that ‘Man is the measure of all things’ and that 'opinion is true to each person which he acquires through sensation’.
According to these views, each person’s perception is their reality, and thus, knowledge becomes subjective. However, Plato argued that if this were the case, genuine, true
knowledge would be impossible as no one could ever be wrong about anything.
Plato believed that equating knowledge with perception breeds scepticism. For instance, if the wind feels cold to one person and not to another, who is correct? According to
Plato, the operation of the senses results in mere belief (doxa), not true knowledge (episteme). According to Plato, truth and knowledge (episteme) are about how things really
are, not about how they are for me or you. This means that knowledge is objective and independent of individual perceptions. Knowledge refers not to natural objects but to
universals in a supernatural and supersensory realm, the World of Forms.
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