CHAPTER 16 “TOWARD A NEW WORLDVIEW”
1540 - 1700 - Scientific Revolution
1690 - 1789 - Enlightenment
1700 - 1800 - growth of book publishing
1720 - 1780 - rococo style in art and decoration
1740 - 1748 - War of the Austrian Succession
1740 - 1780 - reign of the empress Maria Theresa of Austria
1740 - 1786 - reign of Frederick the Great of Prussia
1756 - 1763 - Seven Years’ War
1762 - 1796 - reign of Catherine the Great of Russia
1780 - 1790 - reign of Joseph II of Austria
1791 - establishment of the Pale of Settlement
Until the middle of the 16th century, Europeans relied on an understanding of motion and matter drawn from
Aristotle. The rise of the university inspired European scholars to seek better explanations. The major figures
of the Scientific Revolution were for the most part devout Christians who combined older traditions with
their pathbreaking experimentation.
- developments in modern science & philosophy
- the growth of natural history
Why Europe?
- in 1500 scientific activity flourished many parts of the world
- the interaction of people and cultures across the vast Muslim world, facilitated by religious tolerance was
highly favorable to advances in learning
- Muslims established the world’s 1st university in Constantinople, Fez and Cairo (invented algebra, the
concept of the algorithm and decimal point notation
- China reached a peak in the mid-14th century (papermaking, gunpowder, the use of the compass in
navigation
- in Mesoamerica complex calendar system was devised
- periods of advancement produced by intense cultural interaction are often followed by stagnation and
decline during times of conflict & loss of authority
- the re-establishment of stronger monarchies and the growth of trade in the High Middle Ages contributed
to a renewal of learning in western Europe
- in the 12th century many Greek texts were translated into Latin
- lots of European cities created universities in which Aristotle’s works dominated the curriculum
- the intellectual and cultural movement known as the Renaissance provided a crucial foundation for the
Scientific Revolution; scholars emphasized the value of acquiring knowledge for the practical purposes of
life, the quest to restore the glories of the ancient past led to the rediscovery of other classical texts
(Ptolemy’s Geography).
- the fall of the Constantinople in 1453 resulted in a great influx of little-known Greek works, as Christian
scholars fled to Italy with these texts
- western European unis established new professorships of mathematics, astronomy, and natural
philosophy; the prestige of the new fields was low, but they eventually enabled the union of the
mathematics with natural philosophy that was to be a hallmark of the SR
- overseas expansion provided another catalyst for new thought about the natural world - the navigational
problems of long oceanic voyages in the age of expansion stimulated scientific research and invention
(telescope, barometer, thermometer, pendulum clock, microscope, air pump)
- printing - crucial technology
- the Ottomans, Safavid Persians, and Mughals (the 3 large empires of the Muslim world) arose in the wake
of the Mongol Empire in part sought to restore order and assert legitimacy in part by imposing Islamic
orthodoxy
- in China political newcomers legitimized their authority through stricter adherence to traditional ways
- western Europe remained politically fragmented into smaller competitive nations, divisions were
augmented by the religious fracturing of the Protestant Reformation, which made it impossible to impose
one orthodox set of ideas
Scientific Thought to 1500
- natural philosophy - questions about the physical nature of the universe and how it functioned belonged to
a minor branch of philosophy; based primarily on the ideas of Aristotle (motionless earth stood at the
center of the universe and was encompassed by 10 separate concentric crystal spheres in which were
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, embedded the moon, the sun, planets, and stars; beyond the spheres was heaven; a distinction between the
world of the celestial spheres and the sublunar world [made up to 4 imperfect, changeable elements; a
uniform force moved an object at a constant speed and the object would stop as soon as that force was
removed)
- Aristotle’s views also dominated thinking about physics and motion on earth
- it made intellectual sense, but it provided no explanation for the apparent backward motion of the plants
- Ptolemaic astronomy was less elegant than Aristotle’s, but it provided a surprisingly accurate model for
predicting planetary motion
- his work also provided the basic foundation of knowledge about the earth; reintroduced the idea of using
coordinates of latitude and longitude; it only reflected the limits of ancient world, showing only Europe,
Africa and Asia
- overcoming the authority of the ancients to develop a new understanding of the natural world, derived
from precise techniques of observation and experimentation, was a monumental achievement
- Europeans were not the 1st ones to use experimental methods, but they were the 1st ones to separate
scientific knowledge decisively from philosophical & religious beliefs and to accord mathematics a
fundamental role in understanding the natural world
The Copernican Hypothesis
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473 - 1543) studied astronomy, medicine, and church law. He came to believe that
Ptolemy’s cumbersome rules detracted from the majesty of a perfect creator. “The sun, rather than the earth,
is at the center of the universe” - theorized that the stars and planets revolved around a fixed sun.
- “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres” -> “O obrotach sfer niebieskich”
The Copernican Hypothesis had enormous scientific and religious implications - destroyed the main reason
for believing in crystal spheres capable of moving the stars around the earth. He challenged the traditional
hierarchy of the disciplines and destroyed the basic idea of Aristotelian physics. Religious leaders varied in
their response to Copernicus’s theories. Among Catholics, his ideas drew little attention prior to 1600. Only
in 1616 did they declare his hypothesis false. In 1572 a new star appeared, made an enormous impression on
people, and seemed to contradict the idea that the heavenly spheres were unchanging and therefore perfect. It
was a time for “radical renovation of astronomy”.
Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo: Proving Copernicus Right
Tycho Brahe - Danish astronomer; established himself as Europe’s leading astronomer with his observation
of the new star (1572); author of the Rudolphine Tables; believed that all planets except for the earth revolve
around the sun
Johannes Kepler - Brahe’s assistant; developed 3 revolutionary laws of planetary motion:
1) the orbits of the planets around the sun are elliptical rather than circular
2) the planets do not move at a uniform speed in their orbits
3) the time a planet takes to make its complete orbit is precisely related to its distance from the sun
He proved mathematically the precise relations of a sun-centered system, and unified for the 1st time the
theoretical cosmology of natural philosophy with mathematics. Wrote at length on cosmic harmonies and
explained elliptical motion.
Galileo Galilei - poor Italian nobleman who first marked for a religious career; examined motion and
mechanics; focused on deficiencies in Aristotle’s theories of motion; showed that a uniform force produced a
uniform acceleration; formulated law of inertia (an object continues in motion forever unless stopped by
some external force); discovered the 1st 4 moons of Jupiter; “The Sidereal Messenger”
Newton’s Synthesis
The new findings failed to explain what forces controlled the movement of the planets and objects on earth.
Isaac Newton united the experimental and theoretical-mathematical sides of modern science. In 1687 he
published “Principia”, and bc of their complexity it took scientists 200 years to work out all their
implications. He came up with the law of universal gravitation (every body in the universe attracts every
other body in the universe in a precise mathematical relationship, and the force of attraction is proportional
to the quantity of matter of the objects and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them). His synthesis of mathematics with physics and astronomy prevailed until the 20th century. He was
deeply fascinated by alchemy. Believed that the attraction of gravity resulted from God’s actions in the
universe.
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,Natural History and Empire
Europeans embarked on the pursuit of knowledge about unknown geographical regions - the Spanish
pioneered (the Crown sponsored many scientific expeditions). Other countries followed the Spanish relying
on both official expeditions and the private initiative of merchants, missionaries, and settlers.
Plants were a particular source of interest, bc they offered tremendous profits (spices, medicines, dyes, cash
crops). The Spanish obtained a monopoly on the world’s supply of cinchona bark in the 17th century. Royal
botanical gardens served as living laboratories for cultivating valuable foreign plants.
New encyclopedias of natural history popularized this knowledge with realistic drawings and descriptions
emphasizing the usefulness of animals and plants
Magic and Alchemy
Astrology formed a regular part of the curriculum of medical schools, as it was used as a diagnostic tool. Old
practices of magic and alchemy also remained important for natural philosophers. They strove to understand
and control hidden connections among different elements of the natural world. Belief in occult qualities was
not anti ethical to belief in God. Adherents believed that only a divine creator could infuse the universe with
such meaningful mystery.
Important Changes in Scientific Thinking and Practice
Advancements that occurred in many fields happened thanks to the collaboration of skilled craftsmen
(invented new instruments and helped conduct experiments) with scholars (developed new methods to seek
answers to long-standing questions).
The Methods od Science: Bacon and Descartes
Francis Bacon and Rene Descartes were influential in describing and advocating for improved scientific
methods based on experimentation and mathematical reasoning. Bacon argued that new knowledge had to be
pursued through empirical research, and formalized the empirical method into the general theory of inductive
reasoning knows as empiricism. This led to the widespread adoption of what was called “experimental
philosophy”. Descartes saw that there was a perfect correspondence between geometry and algebra and that
geometrical spatial figures could be expressed as algebraic equations and vice versa. He used mathematics to
elaborate a highly influential vision of the workings of the cosmos, as be began to investigate the basic
nature of matter (that was made up of “corpuscles” that collided together in an endless series of motions).
According to Descartes all occurrences in nature could be analyzed as matter in motion, and the total
“quantity of motion” in the universe was constant - every action had an equal reaction, continuing in an
eternal chain reaction (proved wrong??). He developed his initial vision into a whole philosophy. When his
experiments proved right, he decided it could be wrong, and it was necessary to doubt them; everything that
could be doubted, and to ??? wtf
His reasoning ultimately reduced all substances to “matter” and “mind”. He believed that God has endowed
man with reason for a purpose and that rational speculation could provide a path to the truths of creation -
Cartesian dualism. Highly influential in France, and the Netherlands, but less so in England.
empiricism - a theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and
experimentation rather than deductive reason and speculation
Medicine, the Body, and Chemistry
For many centuries it was Galen’s (ancient Greek physician) explanation of the body that was being used by
physicians. According to him the body contained 4 humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile), and that
illness was a result of an imbalance of humors, which is why doctors frequently prescribed bloodletting to
expel excess blood. That believe started to change in the 16th (?) century.
1) Paracelsus - pioneered the use of chemicals and drugs to address what he saw as chemical, rather than
humoral imbalances.
2) Andreas Vesalius - in 1543 published “On the Structure of the Human Body” whose precise drawings
revolutionised the understanding of human bodies
3) William Harvey - discovered the circulation of blood through the veins and arteries (1628)
4) Robert Boyle - his scientific work led to the development of modern chemistry; the 1st one to create a
vacuum; undertook experiments to discover the basic elements of nature
Science and Religion
Most practitioners were devoutly religious and saw their work as contributing to the celebration of God’s
glory. However, the concept of heliocentrism threatened the understanding of the place of mankind in
creation as stated in Genesis. All religions derived from the Old Testament thus faced difficulties accepting
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, the Copernican system. In 1616 the Holy Office placed the works of Copernicus and his supporters on a list
of books Catholics were forbidden to read.
“Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World” —> Galileo’s work that “went too far” in supporting
Copernicus’s heliocentrism, and made him be tried for heresy
After that the Catholic Church became more hostile to science (—> decline of science in Italy after 1640). At
the same time some Protestant countries (the NL, Denmark, England) became “pro-science”.
Science and Society
The rise of modern science had many consequences:
1) created a new social group - the international scientific community who were linked together by
common interests and values
2) the new scientific community became closely tied to the state and its agendas, since governments
intervened to support and direct research
3) many artisans developed a strong interest in emerging scientific ideas, and so the practice of science
often relied on artisans’ expertise in making instruments and conducting precise experiments
Not everything changed tho - scholars willing to challenge received ideas about the natural universe did not
question the seemingly natural inequalities between the sexes. The rise of a scientific community also raised
new barriers for women because the universities and academies that furnished professional credentials
refused them entry.
In Italy, universities and academies did offer posts to women. Across EU, women worked as makers of wax
anatomical models, and botanical illustrators. They were also much involved in informal scientific
communities. Some female intellectuals became full-fledged members of the philosophical dialogue.
The Rise and Spread of Enlightenment Thought
The political, social, religious and intellectual developments of the Scientific Revolution further contributed
to a series of debates of key issues in Europe, and soon it came to be known as the Enlightenment.
1) Thirty Years War brought old religious certainties into question
2) the strong states that emerged to quell the disorder soon inspired questions about political sovereignty &
it limits
3) increased movement of ppl, goods and ideas offered examples of surprisingly different ways of life and
values
Enlightenment as a worldview grew out of a rich mix of diverse and often conflicting ideas that were debated
in international networks. Three central concepts stand at the core of Enlightenment thinking:
1) the methods of natural science could and should be used to examine and understand all aspects of life
(nothing was to be accepted on faith, everything was to be submitted to rationalism)
2) the scientific method was capable of discovering the laws of human society as well as those of nature
3) armed with the proper method of discovering the laws of human existence, human beings could create
better societies and better people.
The Early Enlightenment
1690-1789 —> European Enlightenment; gained strength gradually and did not reach maturity until +/-
1750; its origins lie in a combination of developments, including:
1) political opposition to absolutists rule
2) religious conflicts between Protestants and Catholics and within Protestantism
3) European contacts with other cultures
4) the attempt to apply principles and practices from the Scientific Revolution to human society
Enlightenment thinkers believed that their era had gone far beyond antiquity and that intellectual progress
was within their reach.
A key crucible for Enlightenment thought was the Dutch Republic, with its proud commitment to religious
tolerance and republican rule. From this heaven of tolerance, Hugenots began to publish tracts denouncing
religious intolerance and suggesting that only a despotic monarch would deny religious freedom (after they
were banned from France in ?)
“Historical and Critical Dictionary” —> by Pierre Bayle - a Hugenot refugee; he critically examined the
religious beliefs and persecution of the past; nothing can be ever known beyond all doubt (skepticism)
Baruch Spinoza —> Dutch Jewish; sought to apply natural philosophy to thinking about human society;
borrowed Decartes’s emphasis on rationalism and his methods of deductive reasoning but rejected the French
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