Summary
Theories & Approaches of Change 2018
Included:
Chapter 1-14 Burnes – Managing Change (seventh edition)
Chapter 1, 2, 10 and 11 Smith & Graetz – Philosophies of Organizational Change
+ some additional schemas
,Burnes chapter 1 – Introduction to change management
In order to create the conditions for successful change, organisations have to address 5 questions.
Why do we want to change?
In the face of internal and external opportunities and threats, organisations change in order to become more
effective at achieving their goals, and that effectiveness is derived from factors such as processes, people
and organisational culture.
Should we focus on individual, group or system change?
Three schools of thoughts that form the planks on which CM theory is built.
1) The individual perspective school
Two supporters of this school are behaviourists and the Gestalt-Field psychologists.
- Behaviourists view behaviour resulting from and individual’s direct interaction with their
environment. All behaviour is learned (Pavlov). In order to change behaviour, it is necessary
to change the conditions that cause it. Principle of extinction means that a behaviour will stop
eventually if it is not rewarded → classical school.
- Gestalt-Field psychologists arguing that an individual’s behaviour is derived from the totality
of coexisting and interdependent forces that impinge on them and make up the field or life
space in which the behaviour takes place. Change is a process of gaining insights, outlooks,
expectations or thought patterns. It is not just a product of external stimuli. It arises from how
the individual uses reason to interpret these stimuli. Learn about yourself.
Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators owes much to the work of human relations. However, they
also draw attention to the importance of social groups in organisations.
2) The group dynamics school
Bring about change by focusing on the individual is likely to be ineffective. The focus of change
must be at the group level and should concentrate on influencing and changing the groups…
- Norms = Rules or standards that define what people should do, think or feel in a given
situation. Difference between explicit (formal, written) and implicit (informal, unwritten).
- Roles = Patterns of behaviour to which individuals/groups are expected to conform.
- Values = Ideals and beliefs that individuals and groups hold about what is right and wrong.
3) The open systems school
View and understand the organisation in its entirety. Open in two ways: 1) open to and interact
with their external environment, and 2) open internally, the various sub-systems interact with each
other. Emphasis is on achieving overall synergy rather than on optimising the performance of any
one individual part per se. There are four principal organisational sub-systems.
- The organisational goals and values sub-system
- The technical sub-system (knowledge and technology to function)
- The psychosocial sub-system (binding people)
- The managerial sub-system (responsibility for directing, if this fails → everything)
Depending on the situation, the main focus of the response will be at the individual, group of system level.
Although these levels cannot be seen in isolation from each other.
Will there be resistance, where from? How can we gain employee commitment? Are we ready for change?
For change to be successful, change agents have to anticipate and overcome employee resistance. Two
serious problems with this view are that it assumes that
1) Resistance is always wrong
2) Resistances arises from within the individual
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,There is strong evidence that resistance occurs due not to the psychological propensities of individuals but
to the nature of the organisation where resistance occurs, forces within the systems. On the other hand, there
is equally strong evidence that resistance does arise from an individual’s psychological make-up. However,
if we take the view that organisations are social systems, it is not contradictory to see resistance as arising
from the interplay between the characteristics of the individual and the characteristics of the organisation.
Theory 1 – Cognitive dissonance
People try to be consistent in both their attitudes or between their attitudes and behaviour, people experience
dissonance. They feel frustrated and uncomfortable with the situations (paradoxes). In addition to trying to
reduce the dissonance, people will actively, resist or avoid situations and information that would be likely
to increase the dissonance. They will resist paradoxical situations brought about by incompatible
organisational objectives.
Theory 2 – The depth of intervention
The level of employee involvement required in any change project is related to the psychological impact of
the change on the people concerned (depth of intervention theory). Two interesting insights.
1) It supports the view that resistance can be moderated by the way it is managed, the level of
participation.
2) Resistance appears to be moderated by the nature of the change intervention itself, the degree to
which it challenges and individual’s psychological make-up.
Theory 3 – Psychological contract
It are the expectations of the employees and the employer. When both sets of expectations are congruent,
relative stability prevails, but if employers attempt to bring in changes which affect the balance of forces,
resistance and conflict may arise. Although the notion of the psychological contract might appear to support
the argument that resistance arises from the individual’s psychological make-up, it is in effect about the
context in which the individual is situated and the forces that impinge on them.
Theory 4 – Dispositional resistance
Focuses on the individual as the main source of resistance rather than wider organisational factors.
Individuals vary in the degree to which they are psychologically disposed to accept or resist change. It
rejects the notion that all human beings are programmed to oppose change. Relationship is important!
Three important findings
▪ Resistance to change is not uniform among human beings.
▪ An individual’s level of dispositional resistance does not necessarily predict their actual level of
resistance. It will be moderated by the context and the nature of the change.
▪ The way change is managed (style change agent and involvement those affected) also affect the
level of resistance.
Managers have to understand the nature of the existing situation and its readiness for change. Beliefs,
attitudes and intentions regarding the extent to which changes are needed and the organisation’s capacity
to successfully undertake those changes.
Who will manage the change process? Do they have appropriate skills?
The multi-faceted and multi-level nature of change means that it cannot be left to a few experts or a few
managers, but that change is everyone’s job. In contrast, what the work of Buchanan and Boddy,
Lichtenstein, Schuyt and Schuijt, and indeed, the OD movement would seem to argue is that the more
complex the change process, the more difficult it is to achieve, and the greater the need to utilise the skills
and experiences of a specialists change agent → thus one best type. Establish the level of readiness and the
used language are very important!
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, Caldwell’s models of change agent
▪ Leadership models where CA are senior managers.
▪ Management models where CA are seen as middle-level managers.
▪ Consultancy models where CA are external or internal consultants.
▪ Team models where CA are seen as teams that operate at various levels.
Direct practioners away from both the it’s everyone’s responsibility and the one best way and towards
identifying the behaviours and competences necessary for each type of change situation.
What are the frequency and magnitude of the changes required in order for us to survive?
Understanding the pace and scope of change plays a key role in judging the appropriateness of particular
approaches to managing change. Three types of models about nature and pace of change.
1) The incremental model of change
2) The punctuated equilibrium model of organisational transformation
Punctuated discontinuites are typically triggered by modifications in environmental or internal
conditions like new technology, process redesign or industry deregulation.
3) The continuous transformation model of change
Three situational or contingency theories with apply to different organisations in different situations at
different times.
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