2019/2020
Summary Conflicts in the
Middle East
MIDDLE EASTERN STUDIES MA, RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT GRONINGEN
RIANNE VAN MIERLO
,Rianne van Mierlo Conflicts in the Middle East Middle Eastern Studies MA
Table of Contents
WEEK 1 – INTRODUCTION TO THE MIDDLE EAST AND ISLAM ........................................................ 2
WEEK 2 – OLIVIER ROY ............................................................................................................................ 4
WEEK 3 – HINNEBUSCH & RIFAI .......................................................................................................... 13
WEEK 4 – BAUMANN (1) ......................................................................................................................... 21
WEEK 5 – BAUMANN (2) ......................................................................................................................... 29
WEEK 6 – SUTTON + BECKFORD .................................................................................................................... 37
PHILIP W. SUTTON & STEPHEN VERTIGANS................................................................................................................ 40
JAMES A. BECKFORD.............................................................................................................................................. 46
WEEK 7 – CAVANAUGH + NANNINGA ........................................................................................................... 50
WILLIAM T. CAVANAUGH – THE VIOLENCE OF “RELIGION”: EXAMINING A PREVALENT MYTH .............................................. 50
PIETER NANNINGA – THE ROLE OF RELIGION IN AL-QAEDA’S VIOLENCE ........................................................................... 57
Notes
BLUE – stated or emphasised by Nanninga during class
GREEN – terms
Exam
Study for the exam: 1) the literature, 2) the information discussed during class.
I. Questions
The questions are not “informative”; there is no fact-checking. They are focussed on whether someone has
insight on the topics rather than is just knowledgeable. Therefore, the questions are quite broad and are related
to the information of the literature, the debates that have been discussed in class. The questions test to what
extent the student can apply the information of the literature and class to, for instance, specific cases.
• (Approximately) 5 broad [essay] questions
• In learning for the exam; focus on the main points rather than small details
I.I Question examples
1. You’ve been given a short text. Analyse the text in terms of selfing/othering by using Baumann’s
grammars. For instance, a speech from al-Assad; what are examples of the three grammars? Or the
anti-grammar?
2. You’ve been given a text by Trump on the Middle East. Explain why this text is essentialist or
processual, or both.
3. You’ve been given a series of statements on terrorism. Explain how these statements reflect
Cavanaugh’s arguments about the role of religion.
4. Answer the question; “What are Cavanaugh’s thoughts on religious violence?”
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,Rianne van Mierlo Conflicts in the Middle East Middle Eastern Studies MA
Week 1 – Introduction to the Middle East and Islam
What is the Middle East? – Introduction by Nanninga
Is it an Arab speaking world? Muslim world? What about Israel, And Iran, and Turkey? Has the Middle East
unclear boundaries?
Edward Said – Orientalism
• Categorising the West as what the Orient should be in relation to the West
• The Middle East is a Western concept
• Everything that is different from us – the West – and them, is a construct by the West
• The Middle East plays a role in defining what we are; how we think about ourselves
In these studies, we will try to problematise this Western centred term of orientalism; us against them. We will
see this a lot in the media and covering of the problems in the Middle East.
We will focus on armed conflicts in the modern period; classic perception of war of states against states
(interstate conflict). But also; group against groups, or groups against states, or civil war. Intra-state war, militias,
tribal groups.
Studying conflicts in the Middle East, an interdisciplinary approach is important; history, sociology, psychology,
law, religion, theology, religious studies, international relations.
• Interdisciplinary studies – understanding conflicts from different perspectives.
Focus on a case
What is a conflict exactly? Perceptions on how to analyse a conflict are very complex. It is important to take into
account the reasons for a conflict and the different background of how a conflict has emerged. Between whom
is the conflict? Between us and them? Who is ‘us’ and who is ‘they’? Are ‘we’ the good guys or the imperialists?
In this way, conflicts are a construction that is created by people.
Example – Bush versus bin Laden
• Who do they define as the enemy?
• How do they define themselves?
• Between who is the conflict?
• What is the image of the conflict that they want to propagate?
Bush portrays himself as the leader of the free world. Bin Laden portrays himself as a regular Muslim sitting with
his Muslim companions in a cave. Primus inter pares. Bin Laden dresses like a resistance warrior in defending the
Muslims.
• The approach of Bush and the approach of Bin Laden are in fact constructing the conflict by trying to
convince people of their case
Crash Course Islam
• [The Prophet] Mohammed lived in the first half of the 7th century
• The angel Gabriel visited Mohammed and the central message was that there is only one God (tawhid);
this is central to the Islamic doctrine
• At the time, there were a lot of tribes In Arabia that were polytheists
• Mohammed was instructed by the angel Gabriel: there is only one God!
o He started to spread the word in Mecca
o In Mecca, he got some support and also some enemies
o The oppression of his enemies resulted that, in the year 622, he had to flee from Mecca to
Medina (Hijrah)
o 622 is, therefore, the start of the Muslim calendar
• In Medina - Mohammed found refuge in Medina. Here, a conflict was going on between different tribes
• The Prophet Mohammed ended up being a mediator in the conflict between the parties and in that way,
he got an important place in society; he extended his power from Prophet to statesman (and Prophet)
• He became the leader of Medina
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• People started to convert to Islam in Medina and surroundings, Islam became a unifying actor
• In the year 630, Prophet Mohammed conquered Mecca by fighting his own tribesman (this was
revolutionary)
• The basis was not anymore focussed on the tribe but the Umma (Islamic community); this became the
defining principle on the Arabian Peninsula
• Mohammed changed the social structures of Arabic society; from tribes to a religious community with
different rules of engagement
After the Prophet Mohammed
Mohammed died in 632. Who was going to be his successor? The successor is called Caliph.
• Sunni Muslims at the time claimed that the successor of Mohammed should be a leader, a good Muslim,
a strong leader of the community, who had a good relationship with Mohammed, and an influential
man. The community should be allowed to choose the successor
• The first four Caliphs are called the Rashidun (righteous [chosen] leaders), after the Rashidun Caliphate
came the Ummayad caliphate which was rather focussed on father-son succession. The capital of the
Muslims moved from Medina to Damascus. The Umayyad Caliphate lasted until 750 and then was
replaced by Abbasid caliphate until the invasion of the Mongols
• According to Shia Muslims, Ali, the 4th caliph, was the rightful successor of Mohammed. Shias are part
of the Shi’at Ali (group of Ali); they claimed that the Muslim community should be led by someone that
has a special connection with God, and of course, the blood relatives of Mohammed have a special
relationship with God. Therefore, the head of the Muslim community should be a relative of
Mohammed. God elected this family, not the ummah
• Several fitnas (conflicts) between the Shias and Sunnis emerged. Sunni Muslims became dominant. Shia
Muslims went underground. Shias do not acknowledge the first four caliphs. The first Caliph that they
do acknowledge is Ali and after him eleven other imams. The 12th Imam disappeared according to their
belief, and he will return at the end of times. Until then, Shia rulership will be replaced by ayatollahs
like Khomeini. This happened in Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Bahrein, Yemen (Houthi), Afghanistan.
• Exactly 100 years after the death of Mohammed the Muslim caliphate ruled over big parts of the world
from Southern France to India. After this period Islam downgraded. Misinterpretation of Islam emerged
Koran
• The Koran is the written version of the revelations
• The Islam was an oral culture
• After Mohammed died all these revelations were wondering around
• Muslims decided that they should write the revelations down
o What ended up in the Koran is a topic for a huge debate
o The first three caliphs took care of collecting these revelations
o Some scholars say that the Koran was written down in the early 9th century
o The Koran is not chronological but ordered on the length of the stories (from short verses until
long verses)
o The chapters themselves are also very complicated; there are no very coherent chapters
o There are 114 sura’s (chapters)
o How should we interpret the Koran? This is the most debated topic between Muslim scholars
o There are many different interpretations
o According to Muslims the Koran is the perfect book
o It should be ‘experienced’; read out loud and not in silence (recite)
Hadith
• Ahadith are the descriptions of the life of Mohammed; traditions about Mohammed and his
companions; things Mohammed did and said and how he prayed, how he behaved during war, how he
instructed his companions to treat women
• Muslims decided to write down these statements in a written version, so they knew how to live our lives
as good Muslims
• These hadith scholars started to investigate which traditions are real and authentic and which are not
o Al bukhari and Muslim are the most important collections
• The Hadith is ordered thematically
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