Keller, Kevin Lane (1993):
“Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity” [1-22]
Abstract:
The author presents a conceptual model of brand equity from the perspective of the
individual consumer. Customer-based brand equity (CBBE) is defined as the differential effect
of brand knowledge on consume response to the marketing of the brand. A brand is said to
have positive (negative) customer-based brand equity when consumers react more (less)
favorably to an element of the marketing mix for the brand than they do to the same
marketing mix element when it is attributed to a fictitiously named or unnamed version of
the product or service. Brand knowledge is conceptualized according to an associative
network memory model in terms of two components, brand awareness and brand image
(i.e., a set of brand associations). Customer-based brand equity occurs when the consumer is
familiar with the brand and holds some favorable, strong, and unique brand associations in
memory. Issues in building, measuring and managing customer-based brand equity are
discussed.
Brand knowledge: Is conceptualized as consisting of a brand node in memory to which a
variety of associations are linked.
,1) Brand awareness: It is related to the strength of brand node or trace in memory, as
reflected by consumers' ability to identify the brand under different conditions. It relates
to the likelihood that a brand name will come to mind and the ease with which it does so
(e.g. when thinking of laptops - Apple)
- Consists of brand recognition and brand recall performance.
Brand recognition: relates to consumers' ability to confirm prior exposure to
the brand when given the brand as a cue. It requires that consumers
correctly discriminate the brand as having been seen or heard previously (ex.
know the brand with only the slogan).
Brand recall: Brand recall relates to consumers' ability to retrieve the brand
when given the product category, the needs fulfilled by the category, or
some other type of probe as a cue. In other words, brand recall requires that
consumers correctly generate the brand from memory. (ex. I need beer
which brand comes first in your mind when you are in the supermarket).
- Importance of brand awareness:
Increases the likelihood that the brand will be in the consideration set
Influences on decisions about brands within consideration sets: May be
especially essential in low involvement or more impulse buying categories
(quicker decisions)
It is a necessary condition for developing brand image and associations
2. Brand Image: is
defined as perceptions
about a brand as
reflected by the brand
associations held in
consumer memory.
Dimensions of brand
image are the different
,types, favorability,
strength and uniqueness
of
brand associations.
2) Brand Image: is defined as perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand
associations held in consumer memory. Dimensions of brand image are:
- I: Types of brand associations:
Attributes: the descriptive features that characterize a product or service,
what a consumer thinks the product or service is.
Attributes are distinguished in
o Product related: (the ingredients necessary for performing the
product or service function sought by consumers/ how the product
perform)
o Non-product related (the external aspects of the product or service
that relate to its purchase or consumption)
- The four main types of non-product related attributes:
(1) Price
(2) Packaging
(3) User imagery: what types of consumers uses/buy the product
(4) Usage imagery: where and in what types of situations the
product is used.
, Benefits: the personal value consumers attach to the product or service
attributes - that is, what consumers think the product or service can do for
them.
Benefits can be further distinguished into three categories:
1. Functional: more intrinsic advantages of the product, correspond
to the product-related attributes (e.g. safety, reliability, no waiting)
2. Experiential: to what it feels like to use the product, correspond to
the product-related attributes (e.g. emotions, feelings)
3. Symbolic: more the extrinsic advantages of the product,
correspond to the non-product related attributes and relate to
underlying needs for social approval or personal expression and
outer-directed self-esteem.
Attitudes: consumers' overall evaluations of a brand. Brand attitudes are
important because they often form the basis for consumer behavior (e.g.
brand choice).
- II: Favorability of brand associations: Associations differ according to how
favorably they are evaluated. Consumers believe the brand has attributes and
benefits that satisfy their needs and wants such that a positive overall brand
attitude is formed. The evaluations of brand associations may be situationally or
context-dependent and vary according to consumers' particular goals in their
purchase or consumption decisions. An association may be valued in one
situation but not another.
- III: Strength of brand associations: The strength of associations depends on how
the information enters consumer memory (encoding) and how it is maintained as
part of the brand image (storage).
Strength is a function of both:
o the amount or quantity of processing the information
receives at encoding (i.e., how much a person thinks
about the information)
o the nature or quality of the processing the information
receives at encoding (i.e., the manner (how deeply) in
which a person thinks about the information)
Relationships among brand associations
- IV: Uniqueness of brand associations: Brand associations may or may not be
shared with other competing brands. The essence of brand positioning is that the
brand has a sustainable competitive advantage or "unique selling proposition"
that gives consumers a compelling reason for buying that particular brand. (The
associations which differ you from competitors to make you superior).
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