Dit betreft een samenvatting van het artikel van Danny L. Jorgensen over Participant Observation en bestaat uit de onderdelen: gaining entrée to a setting (blz. 40-52), participating in everyday life (blz. 53-68), observing and gathering information (blz. 82-95), notes, records and files (blz. 96-...
Jorgensen, D.L. (2011). Participant Observation.
- Gaining Entrée to a Setting (page 40-52)
Selecting a setting
The selection of a setting is interrelated with the problem being studied. Because a
setting does not change, it is very important to consider the implication of selecting that
specific setting. These implications have to be evaluated.
- The availability of relevant settings might be limited.
- The more is known about a setting the easier it is to decide if that setting is
appropriate for your research.
-> Participant observers explore different possible settings in order to select the most
appropriate one. Sometimes this decision is solely based on opportunity and
convenience.
It is important to think about the ways in which the setting will limit and facilitates what
may be investigated. Selecting a setting is dependent on:
- The ability to get access to the setting.
- The range of possible participant roles you might assume.
- If this role (or roles) will provide sufficient access to phenomena of interest.
-> Gaining access to the setting, participating, or establishing and sustaining relations
with insiders may tax your abilities and resources beyond reasonable limits. Conclusion:
you have to consider your own interests and abilities as well.
Features of settings
Visible setting: when information about it is available to a general public (e.g.
universities, hospitals, etc.).
- Some settings are visible but less observable (e.g. drug dealers).
Invisible setting: hidden, concealed, and obscured from the view of outsiders.
- Locating these settings is extremely difficult without prior experience with more
visible aspects of these human scenes. This knowledge can be acquired by
gaining trust of an insider.
Open setting: a setting is more or less open if access to it requires little negotiation.
Closed setting: a setting is more or less closed if access requires considerable
negotiation.
Whether or not a setting is open or closed to a participant observation is only partly
related to its visibility. Because a setting is highly visible does not mean that it is open to
public inspection. Likewise, because a setting is only partly visible to outsiders does not
mean that it is closed to participant observation.
- Highly visible public settings often contain less visible activities.
Goffman (1959) makes a distinction between regions of human settings:
- Frontstage: entirely visible and open.
- Backstage: entirely visible and closed.
-> Most human settings contain both frontstage and backstage regions.
Politics
Most human settings are to some extent political: they involve the use of power by
people.
- People are ranked by values associated with the positions they occupy and the
roles they perform.
Human settings are generally stratified: differential amounts of prestige are attached to
people based on their status and role.
- Power and prestige are often related (people with more prestige often have
greater power).
- Power and prestige within human settings commonly are the source of conflict
and disagreement.
, Being female enhances fieldwork in many situations, particularly by providing a
perspective different from that of men in societies dominated by a male outlook. It also
has its disadvantages, such as in studies of predominantly male occupations or
(sub)cultures. Being a male generally presents fewer obstacles for participation,
depending on the setting and situation. However, they need to be more conscious about
the fact that their male outlook may limit what may be observed in particular settings
and situations.
During any extended time period, access to the activities of one strata (or faction) of a
setting most likely will prohibit similar access to the activities of rival fractions or unequal
strata.
Overt access to an organization usually requires seeking permission from people in
authority (of high prestige). Although subordinates may be required by their superiors to
permit you to observe, it is difficult to prevent them from resenting your presence, or
engaging in tactics designed to obscure your view.
Entrée strategies
Overt strategy: when the researcher openly requests permission to observe. This is the
preferred strategy because: it raises few ethical problems, is less difficult than other
approaches and tends to provide adequate access to phenomena of interest.
- The most ideal situation is one in which authorities and other people in the setting
welcome the researcher.
- However, in most circumstances, access is gained by seeking permission from the
highest possible authority, and gradually convincing them (and other people in
the setting) that the researcher can be trusted.
- A copy of the proposal to do the participant observation should be presented to
the authority. This should include:
o Basic plan of the research.
o Basic goals and purposes.
o Provide good reasons why it is in the interest of the authority.
o Treat any issue likely to be used as grounds for denying the request
(political or ethical).
- It is advisable to discuss possible reasons for deniability before presenting the
formal proposal.
- The most useful strategy for gaining access is to gain trust and confidence of an
authority in the setting.
- If permission initially is denied, it may be possible for the researcher to uncover
the grounds for this decision so minor changes can be made to gain permission
after all.
o Permission can always be withdrawn later.
Covert strategy: the researcher assumes some participant role without informing people
in the setting that research is under way (suitable for settings closed to outsiders).
- Ethically controversial.
- It contains the possibility that participant observation in the setting will be
terminated if the investigative interest is discovered.
- This type of observation involves deceiving insiders of informed consent because
people are unable to agree to participate in the research (it fails to respect the
rights of human subjects).
o However, sometimes covert observation is necessary (e.g. studying
criminal cultures).
o Some observers think it is necessary to get truthful information.
- Unless potential researchers were required to warn everyone, they encountered
that they might end up doing research, under such conditions it would be
impossible to avoid at least some unintentional information.
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