Group Dynamics, Exam Summary
Lecture 1:
Chapter 1: Introduction to group dynamics:
Group dynamics = the influential actions, processes, and changes that occur within and between
groups (and the scientific study of those groups).
Groups:
Group = two or more individuals who are connected by and within social relationships.
Characteristics of groups:
1. Interaction:
Task interaction: fulfilling tasks that contribute to the group’s goals.
Relationship interaction: actions of group members in order to influence the strength
of the emotional and interpersonal bonds within the group.
2. Goals:
Generating: create new ideas to accomplish goals and solve problems.
Choosing: choose the correct ideas/solutions.
Negotiating: resolve differences of opinion among group members.
Executing: carrying out actions to obtain the group goals.
3. Interdependence:
Symmetric interdependence: two or more members influence each other.
Hierarchical interdependence without reciprocity: one leader with subordinates.
Hierarchical interdependence with reciprocity: the subordinates influence the
leader, but the leader influences the subordinates again.
Sequential interdependence: member A influences member B, and member B
influences member C.
4. Group structure: the complex of roles, norms, and intermember relations that
organizes the group.
5. Cohesion:
Group cohesion = the unity of a group, which is the result of strong and mutual
interpersonal bonds among members.
Types of groups:
1. Primary groups = small, long-term groups that’s characterized by a high frequency of
interaction (usually face-to-face settings), cohesiveness, and member identification (e.g.,
close friends, families, gangs, military squads).
2. Social groups = large groups of moderate duration that’s characterized by moderate levels of
interaction and are often goal-oriented (e.g., co-workers, crews, fraternities).
3. Collectives = group of individuals that forms spontaneously, lasts only a brief period of time
and relations among members will disappear immediately (e.g., audiences, bystanders,
crowds, waiting lines).
4. Categories = group of individuals who are similar to one another in a way according to
gender, ethnicity, religion, or nationality (e.g., Asian Americans, women, Jews).
, Social identity = occurrence of a feeling that distinguishes groups between ‘we’ and ‘them’.
Observing groups:
Campbell: entitativity = the quality of being a single entity rather than loosely associated,
independent individuals. Influenced by: (1) Common fate: having the same ideas about
achieving goals, (2) Similarity: do the individual express similar sorts of behaviors? And (3)
Proximity: how close are the individuals to each other within the group?
Lickel: research in which they asked participants to make aggregations of individuals.
Suggest that people spontaneously draw distinctions among primary groups, social groups,
collectives, and more general social categories.
Thomas theorem = suggests that if individuals think an aggregate is a true group, then the
group will have important interpersonal consequences for those in the group and those who
are observing it.
Essentialism = the persuasion that all groups that are high in entitativity are assumed to have
a basic essence that defines the nature of their members. It is unchangeable.
Assumptions that guide the research in groups and their dynamics:
Group dynamics = the field of research that is dedicated to advancing knowledge about the nature of
groups.
Assumptions that led to the paradigm (= scientists’ shared assumptions about the phenomena they
study and the set of research procedures) of group dynamics:
Groups are real: Durkheim: adopted a group-level of analysis instead of individual-level of
analysis, such as psychologists do.
o Allport: objected group-level concepts, because they are examples of group fallacy =
explaining social phenomena in terms of the group as a whole instead of basing the
explanation on the individual-level processes within the group.
Groups are more than the sum of individuals: Lewin: field theory = the behaviors of
individuals in groups is determined by the interaction between the person and the
environment, expressed as the law of interactionism: B = f(P,E) Each person’s behavior B
is a function f of his/her personal qualities P, the social environment E, and the interaction
between P and E.
o Sherif: group mind does exist. Group members adapt their opinions to the group
norms.
Groups are influential: groups influence their members by forming their behaviors, thoughts,
and feelings.
Groups influence the society: groups have an important role in maintaining religious,
political, and economic systems in a community.
Groups are living systems: Tuckman: theory of group development = over time, most groups
move through five stages(1) Forming: group members get to know each other, (2) Storming:
resulting conflicts due to members competing for status and the group sets its goals, (3)
Norming: group becomes more structured and standards emerge, (4) Performing: group
members execute actions in order to obtain the goals, (5) Adjourning: disagreement results
in the group splitting up.
Groups consists of multiple levels: multilevel analysis perspective = investigates both the
influence of the individual on the group as the influence of the group on the individual. Must
distinguish between: (1) micro-level factors = characteristics and actions of individual group
members, (2) meso-level factors = characteristics of the group (e.g., structure, size, and
cohesion), and (3) macro-level factors = characteristics and processes of larger collectives
that groups are part of (e.g., societies, organisations, and communities).
The usefulness of groups:
, Lewin: came up with the concept of action research = scientific research must describe the
basic theoretical knowledge and, next to that, must offer solutions to significant social
problems that are associated with group processes.
Buys: despite the many problems caused by groups (competition, conflict, poor decision),
humans can’t survive without groups.
Chapter 3: Inclusion and identity:
Putman: Social capital = positive advantages that people obtain from social relationships.
Three important processes that determine the relationship between individuals of groups:
1. Inclusion and exclusion: the degree to which the individual is included or excluded from the
group.
2. Individualism and collectivism: the emphasis on the primacy of the individual versus the
group.
3. Personal identity and social identity: basing self-conceptions on personal qualities or shared
interpersonal qualities.
Inclusion and exclusion:
Ostracism = deliberately excluding someone from the group by ignoring and avoiding him.
William: temporal need-threat model = a three-stage response to exclusion (ostracism): (1)
Reflexive stage: experiencing negative feelings (stress, pain, disappointment), (2) Reflective
stage: thinking about reasons why being excluded and worrying about self, and (3)
Resignation stage: when exclusion continues, person experiences helplessness, sadness, loss
of self-worth, and depression.
Two kinds of responses to exclusion: (1) Fight-or-flight response: confront or withdraw from
the group, and in extreme/unexpected conclusion, they might display a freezing response,
and (2) Tend-and-befriend response: provide support to the group (‘tend’) and seek social
reconnection (‘befriend’).
Need to belong and human evolution:
Evolutionary psychology: the need to belong resulted from natural selection as individuals who were
affiliated with groups were more likely to survive.
Leary: sociometer theory / sociometer model of self-esteem = self-esteem provides
individuals with feedback about their degree of inclusion in groups instead of only a
perception of own self-image.
Negative reactions resulting from exclusion are associated with specific hormonal and
neurological processes. Exclusion leads to activation of the sympathetic nervous system.
Inclusion leads to activation of the parasympathetic nervous system and secretion of
hormone oxytocin, which is associated with positive social behavior.
Brain studies: pain of exclusion is maintained by the same biological systems responsible for
the experience of physiological pain. Thus, social pain has a neurologic basis.
Individualism and collectivism:
Individualism and collectivism are distinguishable in their relative emphasis on individual and
collective across people (micro level), groups (meso level), and cultures (macro level):
1. The micro level: individuals differ in their conception of themselves as individuals or
members of the collective. A person’s conception of himself includes both individualistic
elements (the personal identity) and collectivists elements (the social identity / collective
identity).
, Personal identity = individual’s perception of those aspects of his/her self-concept
that derive from individualistic, personal qualities, such as traits, beliefs, and skills.
o Individualists/independents/idiocentrics: stress personal qualities,
independence, personal goals, competition, uniqueness, need for privacy,
and self-knowledge.
Social identity / collective identity = individual’s perception of those aspects of
his/her self-concept that derive from his/her relationships with other people, groups,
and society.
o Collectivists/interdependents/allocentrics: emphasize relationships, belong,
duty, harmony, seeking advice, context, hierarchy, and the groups’ goals and
needs.
No substantial difference between sexes in individualism or collectivism.
Millennials may be shifting in a more individualistic direction.
Brewer: optimal distinctiveness theory = individuals strive to maintain an optimal
balance between three fundamental needs: (1) need to be assimilated by the group,
(2) need to be connected to friends and loved ones, and (3) need for autonomy and
differentiation.
Group members with a lower socioeconomic status (SES) are more collectivistic.
2. The meso level: the group culture determines the group’s emphasis on the individual
members or the group as a whole. Group culture = shared values, attitudes, persuasions,
practices, and preferences.
Individualists: emphasize exchange relationships = interaction is meant to obtain
rewards that stimulate own well-being.
Collectivists: emphasize communal relationships = interaction is meant to increase
the group’s well-being.
Ultimatum game = experiment whereby an individual must come up with a proposal
regarding the distribution of a common source. When the proposal is rejected by the
others, no one will get anything Egocentric tendencies are more likely in
individualistic settings in contrast to the sociocentric tendencies that are seen in
collectivist settings.
Norm of reciprocity = a social standard that enjoins individuals to pay back in kind
what they receive from others. Is implemented differently in individualistic and
collectivistic groups:
o Individualists: equity norm = a social standard that encourages distributing
rewards and resources to members in proportion to their input.
o Collectivists: equality norm = a social standard that encourages distributing
rewards and resources equally among all members.
3. The macro level: cultures and subgroups within countries vary in their relative emphasis on
individualism and collectivism.
People in collectivist cultures (e.g., Asian, Eastern European, African, and Middle
Eastern countries) are group-centred, whereas people who live in individualistic
cultures (Western countries) are self-centred.
Certain subgroups and geographic regions within a larger area may display more or
less collectivism:
o The southern portion of the U.S. is more collectivistic than other regions.
o Some ethnic groups in the U.S. (e.g., Asian Americans and Hispanic
Americans) are more collectivistic than individualistic.
Personal identity and social identity:
Social identity theory = groups influence the self-concept and self-esteem of group members. Two
cognitive processes:
