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SUMMARY Neuropsychology (literature)
- Instelling
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam (VU)
Summary of the literature for Neuropsychology. Based on the book of 'Fundamentals of Human Neuropsychology'
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Fundamentals of Human NeuropsychologyChapter 3: Nervous System Organization
3.2 Overview of Nervous System Structure and Function
There are three main arteries for the brain’s blood supply:
- Anterior cerebral artery: supplies blood for medial and dorsal parts of the cortex – Legs
- Middle cerebral artery: supplies blood for the lateral surface of the cortex. It also supplies
blood to the subcortex, due to subbranches of the artery. When you have cortical problems
due to a damaged middle artery, subcortical problems are also likely to occur. – Arms and
torso
- Posterior cerebral artery: supplies blood for the posterior and ventral parts of the cortex –
Face
The middle cerebral artery is most often affected by a stroke, because the blood can most easily flow
into this artery as it doesn’t have to make any turns when coming from the brain stem.
Grey matter in the brain is for brain areas. This is mainly cortical. However, there is also grey matter
in the subcortex, because not all brain areas lie in the cortex, such as the basal forebrain and the basal
ganglia.
White matter in the brain is for connections. This is mainly subcortical. There is also white matter in
the cortex, because the brain regions in the cortex need to communicate and of course need the white
matter for this.
The dynamic localization theory states that complex behavioral functions cannot be realized by only
one brain area. Complex brain functions are composed of subcomponents, which work together in
order to realize the complex function. The subcomponents can be localized in one brain area.
The hierarchical structure of the brain has three laws:
- Law of hierarchical structure: complexity of information processing increases from primary
to secondary to tertiary
- Law of decreasing specificity: the higher in the hierarchy, the lower the specificity of the
neurons
- Law of increasing lateralization: the higher in the hierarchy, the more lateralization
3.5 The Brainstem
The brainstem begins where the spinal cord enters the skull and extents upward into the lower areas of
the forebrain. The brainstem has three main regions:
- The hindbrain
o The most distinctive hindbrain structure is the cerebellum. The cerebellum plays a
role in motor coordination and motor learning and may participate in coordinating
other mental processes.
o The hindbrain’s core is a network of a mixture of nuclei and fibers. This is called the
reticular formation, which’s function is to control sleeping and waking,
consciousness and the maintaining of general arousal. The reticulum contains sources
for neurotransmitters
Locus coeruleus: noradrenaline
Dorsal Raphe nucleus: serotonin
Pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTN): acetylcholine (is also
produced in the septum of the basal forebrain – ARAS)
o The medulla and pons regulate most vital body functions, such as blood pressure,
heart rate and respiration.
, - The midbrain
o The midbrain consists of two parts, the tectum, which is a posterior sensory
component and the tegmentum, which is an anterior motor structure.
o The tectum contains the superior and inferior colliculi which receive information
from the eyes and ears.
o The tegmentum contains many nuclei for movement.
o Substantia nigra connects to the forebrain, which is related to reward because it
produces dopamine. Periaqueductal gray matter contains circuits for controlling
species-related behaviors and modulating pain responses.
- The diencephalon
o The diencephalon contains three thalamic structures; hypothalamus, epithalamus
and thalamus.
o The hypothalamus contains many nuclei for regulatory functions such as internal
temperature, eating and drinking and sexual activity.
o The epithalamus includes the pineal gland for biorhythms.
o The thalamus relays sensory information to the cortex.
Lateral geniculate body: visual information
Medial geniculate body: auditory information
3.6 The Forebrain
MacLean explained the Triune Brain, which is the hierarchical structure of the brain.
- Proto-reptilian brain (old brain): this is related to internal processes and basal functions,
such as blood pressure. It is located above the upper spinal cord, amongst regions of the
mesencephalon and diencephalon, cerebellum and the basal ganglia.
o Lead pipe vs clasp knife
Lead pipe has to do with rigidity in Parkinson’s patients. The arm is difficult
to move in any direction. Both muscle groups have problems in the arm.
Clasp knife has to do with spasticity in stroke patients. The arm tends to
move in one direction and is hard to move in the other direction but after a
certain point of resistance, it will move. One muscle group has problems.
- Paleo-mammalian brain (mid brain)
- Neo-mammalian brain (new brain): neocortex.
o Hierarchical structure of posterior part: primary-secondary-tertiary
o Hierarchical structure of the anterior part: tertiary-secondary-primary
The three functional regions of the forebrain are; the basal ganglia, the limbic system and the
neocortex.
The basal ganglia are a collection of nuclei that form a circuit with the cortex. The ganglia include:
- Putamen
- Globus pallidus
- Caudate nucleus
- Striatum
The caudate nucleus receives information from all cortex areas in the brain and projects its own
version through the putamen and the Globus pallidus. The basal ganglia are mainly involved with
motor coordination.
- Huntington disease is a disease in which basal ganglia cells die and therefore involuntary
movements occur. There is death of glia cells which results in lack of inhibition.
- Tourette syndrome is a syndrome in which involuntary movements in the face and head are
common, as well as involuntary vocalization. There is no inhibition which results in excessive
movements. No specific area can be appointed to this disease.
- Parkinson disease is a disease in which voluntary movements, such as getting up from a
chair, are lost. A lost connection between the basal ganglia and brain stem is the cause.
, The second function of the basal ganglia is supporting stimuli-response learning.
The limbic system plays a role in self-regulatory behaviors such as emotion, memories and behavior.
There are several structures involved in the limbic system:
- Amygdala: participates in emotion
- Hippocampus: participates in memory – cortical
- Cingulate cortex – cortical
- Septum: the septum innovates the hippocampus through acetylcholine. Activating the ARAS
(Ascending Reticular Activating System) can thus result in better memory. – subcortical
The neocortex is a thin sheet of neurons which are layered to form gyri and sulci (hersengroeven).
The cingulate cortex is located just above the corpus callosum and is involved in sexual behavior
among other social interactions.
There are different lobes in the cortex, each associated with general functions; vision in the occipital
lobe, hearing in the temporal lobe, somatosensorial in the parietal lobe and movement in the frontal
lobe.
- Primary areas: receive projections from the major sensory systems or send motor projections
to the muscles. (projection area)
- Secondary areas: involved in elaborating information received from primary areas or sending
commands to the primary motor area. (association areas)
- Tertiary areas: encompass all cortex not specialized for sensory or motor function. These are
rather the association areas such as planning, memory and attention.
The cortex does not function in isolation from its subcortical structures but receives sensory
information through the thalamus and works through the basal ganglia to produce movement and
through the limbic system to organize emotion and memory.
3.7 The Crossed brain
Each cortical hemisphere responds to sensory information and stimulation from the side opposite
from that hemisphere and produces movements on the opposite side of the body. Thus, right eyed
information is processed in the left side of the brain and vice versa.
Chapter 8: Organization of the Sensory Systems
8.2 Sensory Receptors and Pathways
There are two pathways which are involved in vision.
Geniculostriate Pathway: The geniculostriate pathway runs from the retina to the lateral geniculate
nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, to the primary occipital lobe.
Its main function is for seeing pattern, color, depth and form. Disturbance in this system causes blind
sight.
The striate cortex (primary occipital lobe) has its name because it is a striped region.
Tectopulvinar Pathway: The tectopulvinar pathway runs from the retina to the superior colliculus to
the pulvinar of the thalamus, to the secondary occipital lobe.
Its main function is for detecting and orienting to stimuli, thus more visuo-spatial related.
Chapter 9: Organization of the Motor Systems
9.3 Communicating with the Spinal Cord
The neocortex sends projects to the corticobulbar tracts and the corticospinal tracts. The
corticobulbar tracts end in the muscles that control facial movements, the corticospinal tracts end in
the muscles that control limb and body movement.
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