Criminology; a contemporary introduc3on
Chapter 2: theory and it’s uses
Theory = an explana)on, or a model, or framework for understanding par)cular events or
processes.
Thinking about theories as frameworks can be useful, it can be helpful to translate the word
‘theory’ into something more meaningful and straigh@orward.
When people talk about theory within criminology, they are thinking about how to
understand the nature of offending, that is, why people engage with crime. à such theories
that allow us to talk about how crime comes about are labelled as ae(ological theories of
crime; this simply means that they are concerned with causes of crime.
What these ae)ological theories do, mostly, is take the legal defini)ons (and thus what is
presented in law) as their star)ng point.
à theories are based on a series of assump)ons of some kind.
Theories within criminology are developed and used extensively in rela)on to a range of
different issues and concerns, par)cularly in rela)on to offering understanding or
explana)on. They also afford the opportunity for policy-making.
The problems with theories:
1. The language and specific terminology used in books, lectures and workshops are as
much a barrier to student engagement and understanding as the actual ideas
themselves.
2. Some)mes evident in teaching and in textbooks at this level is assuming that students
need to have complete historical record of authors and their wri)ng.
3. There is oLen a black and white separa)on of the theories, and what they tell us.
Theories are all too oLen seen as models for understanding things that are quite
separate from one another.
Refer to theories as heuris)c tools; this simply means that they are mental short cuts or
simplifica)ons for making sense of something.
Different theories might help us to understand different aspects of events and processes,
and, quite oLen, using more than one theory fills in more of the gaps than using one in
isola)on.
Classicism and posi)vism are founda)onal school of thought within criminology:
- Not only were they significant in terms of the forma)on of criminology, but also that
the origin of many more recent theories can be traced back to them in terms of how
they approach issues of crime and jus)ce.
Classicism posi)ons offending as a consequence of people choosing to commit crime, based
on them weighing-up situa)ons and likely outcomes. Individuals are viewed as ra(onal
actors who are self-interested/selfish in their ac)ons. à crime can be a chosen behavior if
the situa)on presents it as a ra)onal act.
,Posi(vism presents an opposite account of offending, where people engage in offending
because they are influenced by forces outside their own control.
à Some people do not have the capacity to act ra)onally; instead, internal forces of biology
or psychology or external forces of social condi)ons and culture can influence ac)ons.
Cri)cal theories challenge the status quo and ask ques)ons of the role of the State, laws, and
the criminal jus)ce system. They point conflict in society, and inequali)es based upon things
such as class, ethnicity and gender. Within cri)cal theories, how crime is defined, who are
labelled as offenders and how crime is responded to are oLen said to relate to inequality,
power and even social control. It is possible to argue that most criminologists are in some
way ‘cri)cal’ in their approach to the field.
The blocks of theory
Classicist principles might be described as a first block of theory. The analysis of posi)vism
can be labelled as a second block. And a third block related to social influences. A fourth
block are the cri)cal approaches and block five is labelled as integrated approaches.
Block one: choice and decision making. (Classicist principles)
- People ac)vely choose to commit crime because of the expected outcome.
- Classicism is a key area of theory
- Understanding crime this way means that, in response to crime, we should look to
make offending more difficult to do and make the punishment outweigh the gains of
crime to discourage offenders.
Block two: individual pathologies
- Offending is viewed as a consequence in some wat of biological or psychological
abnormali)es of an offender.
- In some way, there is something abnormal or ‘wrong’ with an individual which causes
or facilitates offending.
- Posi)vism à Individual posi)vism
- Crime must be dealt with through trea)ng or rehabilita)ng offenders to remove the
abnormali)es or pathology that has caused the offending.
Block three: social pathologies
- Offending as an outcome of pathology, but this )me in the context of processes
outside an individual: pathologies of a community, a culture or the social structures
of a society more widely can be considered.
- Posi)vism à Social/sociological posi)vism
Block four: cri)cal approaches
- Presen)ng crime in the context of wider social processes, such as inequality, class,
power, and the marginaliza)on of some groups.
- In such instances, crime becomes a mechanism for responding or surviving for some
groups.
Block five: integrated accounts
- Theories have combined elements of ideas from the other blocks.
,Theory emerges from a series of processes, and theory is inherently related to a series of key
intellectual devices. à Or what might be referred to as a web of knowledge.
This means that a theory is usually shaped by or linked to the specific ques)ons of interest, it
is usually rested upon a series of assump)ons about the world, it is related to a set of specific
concepts, and so on.
All of these are component of criminological enquiry in the web of knowledge:
- Broad issues and concerns of criminology: criminology is centered on a range of key
topics and issues and these drive criminological thinking and research, teaching and,
ul)mately, policy-making.
- Specific ques)ons: from a broader issue or concern are then specific ques)ons
developed. This allows for more in-depth thinking and analysis, or a specific
applica)on of theory.
- Concepts: These are mental shortcuts which help to describe or label certain
phenomena.
- Research ac)vi)es: with specific ques)ons in mind, criminologists might then embark
on research to collect data to inform their thinking and help them to answer the
ques)ons they have.
- Evidence: the data gathered from our research then forms evidence, which is simply
informa)on of some form that helps to develop thinking about an issue or test pre-
exis)ng ideas.
- Evalua)on: using the evidence gathered, the next step is to assess what this means
and what it tells us about the issue/ques)on we are considering.
- Policy: this is ac)on, a set of prac)ces or law making that is concerned with affec)ng
change, dealing with a problem, or reac)ng to it in some way, usually with a hoped-
for posi)ve outcome.
It is apparent that theory might be
arrived at from star)ng out with
broad issues or concerns of interest
and following this round the web of
knowledge.
, Chapter 3: The causes of crime
Most important ques)on: why do people commit crime? (List of reasons on page 40/41)
The next step involves trying to work out whether certain explana)ons seem to make more
sense in the context of specific types of crime and offending.
Different forms of crime:
- Some are acquisi(ve in nature, meaning that they result in some form of specific and
tangible gain for the offender in the form of money or an object of value.
- The other one, expressive, relates to events where such a specific and tangible
acquisi)on is not the aim of the ac)on. The act is a reac)on or expression of some
sort.
Introducing the five blocks
Taking a long-term view, different explana)ons of crime came into existence at different
point in history.
Ini)ally, criminologists approached the macer of understanding crime, and what to
do about it, from a legalis)c and philosophical posi)on, in the context of society becoming
more ra)onal and bureaucra)c. à also known as the Enlightenment.
Explana)ons were focused around decision-making and ra)onality of actors and the
legi)macy of the criminal jus)ce processes. à Classicism.
This way of looking at crime relates to block one: choice and decision making
Influenced by the rise of science, criminologists began forwarding explana)ons based
on the difference of, and thus the pathology of, offenders, presen)ng criminals as somehow
unwell or even subhuman. This broadly relates to block two: individual pathologies.
In the early and mid-twen)eth century, society, and criminologists, became much
more concerned with the influence of social processes on individuals. Such thinking relates
to block three: social pathologies.
Criminologists have been influenced by cri)cal outlooks on the world, such as the
prominence of Marxist thinking, and they began to consider the issues of crime and jus)ce
from such cri)cal posi)ons. Class became an important focal point of analysis, but later so
too did issues of race/ethnicity, immigra)on, gender, consumerist culture, religion, sexuality
and disability. Each might be said to relate to processes of power, inequality, social control
and criminaliza)on. This relates to block four: cri)cal accounts.
Criminologists have sought to combine aspects of these different ways of thinking
about crime and jus)ce, as a consequence of understanding the complexity involved and
recognizing that theories usually do not fully account for events. This relates to block five:
integrated approaches.
Block one: choice and decision-making
the star)ng points in terms of thinking about theory within criminology is the model of
Classicism: crime is viewed as a consequence of individuals making decisions and choosing to
commit crime.
Un)l the Enlightenment period thinking on crime was usually irra)onal, supers))ous and
oLen brutal social processes. Punishment was inconsistent and there was a lot of discre)on
built into the system. Offenders were rou)nely viewed as being evil or immoral in some way,
and punishments were violent, but uncertain and dispropor)onate.
