Samenvatting

Complete samenvatting deeltoets 2: Psychologie van de communicator

7 keer verkocht

Instelling
Universiteit Utrecht (UU)

Baumeister & Bushman: H7, 8, 14 Noba module: Conditioning and learning Noba module: Factors influencing learning Noba module: Memory Noba module: Forgetting and amnesia Noba module: Eyewitness testimony and memory biases Noba module: Conformity and obedience Brysbaert H7 en 8 Busselle, R., & Bi...

[Meer zien]

Voorbeeld 4 van de 45 pagina's

Bekijk voorbeeld

Heel boek samengevat? Onbekend
Geupload op 16 februari 2020
Aantal pagina's 45
Geschreven in 2017/2018
Type Samenvatting

brysbaert
noba module
baumeister
bushman
ciw
deeltoets 2
psychologie van de communicator
uu

Volgen

anneeg Lid sinds 7 jaar 72 documenten verkocht

€4,48

In winkelwagen

Op verlanglijstje

100% tevredenheidsgarantie
Direct beschikbaar na je betaling
Lees online óf als PDF
Geen vaste maandelijkse kosten

Deeltoets 2

Baumeister & Bushman: H7, 8, 14

Noba module: Conditioning and learning
Noba module: Factors influencing learning
Noba module: Memory
Noba module: Forgetting and amnesia
Noba module: Eyewitness testimony and memory biases
Noba module: Conformity and obedience

Brysbaert H7 en 8

Busselle, R., & Bilandzic, H. (2008)
Gantman, A.P., & Van Bavel, J.J. (2015)
Berkum, J.J.A., Holleman, B.C., Nieuwland, M., Otten, M. & Murre, J.J.M. (2009)

1

,Hoofdstuk 7: Attitudes, beliefs, and consistency
What are attitudes and why do people have them?
Attitudes versus beliefs: Attitudes differ from beliefs:
 Beliefs: pieces of information about something; facts or opinions.
 Attitudes: global evaluations toward some object or issue.

Dual attitudes: Dual attitudes are defined as different evaluations of the same attitude or object:
 An automatic attitude: Very fast evaluative ‘gut-level’ responses that people don’t think a great deal
about.
 A deliberate attitude: Reflective responses that people think more carefully about.

Why people have attitudes: People need far more attitudes than most animals. Attitudes help deal with
the complex social world: They help us adjust to new situations (seeking out those things in our
environment that reward us and avoiding those things that punish us). Attitudes are mainly used to sort
things into ‘good’ and ‘bad’ categories. As soon as you know what something is, you start to know
whether you like or dislike it (in the first microsecond of thought). Although people can easily override
the initial, automatic evaluation with further thought, the initial evaluation stands if no further thought is
given.

Attitudes are tremendously helpful in making choices. Possessing an attitude increases the ease, the
speed and quality of decision making.

What is the real attitude?
To be impartial – as a judge or referee is supposed to – may require overcoming one’s attitudes.

How attitudes are formed?
Formation of attitudes: Several explanations have been offered for how attitudes are formed:
 Mere exposure: The mere exposure effect is the tendency for people to come to like things simply
because they see or encounter them repeatedly. The mere exposure effect appears to be quite
robust. This general rule has a couple of exceptions: If you initially dislike something, being exposed
to it repeatedly will not make you like it more. The same is true for threatening stimuli.
 Classical conditioning: Classical conditioning (also called Pavlovian conditioning) is the repeated
pairing of an unconditioned stimulus with a conditioned stimulus, until the conditioned stimulus
elicits a response similar to that elicited by the unconditioned stimulus. Classical conditioning may
help explain the development of prejudiced attitudes against social groups that are frequently
associated with negative information in the media. Advertisers use classical conditioning to direct
attitudes by linking their products with famous or attractive people or with feeling good.
 Body movements: In an experiment, randomly assigned bodily movements shaped people’s attitudes
toward what they heard.
 Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning (also called instrumental conditioning) is a type of
learning. People are more likely to repeat behaviors that have been rewarded and are less likely to
repeat behaviors that have been punished.
 Social learning: Social learning (also called observational learning, imitation or vicarious learning) is
the type of learning in which people are more likely to imitate behaviors if they have seen others
rewarded for performing those behaviors, and are less likely to imitate behaviors if they see others
punished for performing them.

2

,Polarization: Attitude polarization is the tendency for attitudes to become more extreme as people think
about or reflect on their attitudes, especially if they held strong attitudes to begin with. Furthermore, if
people see an equal amount of confirming and disconfirming evidence, they become even more
convinced of their initial attitudes and adopt them more strongly. Other studies show that people are
more accepting of evidence presented by in-group members than by outgroup members.

Consistency
To reduce their feelings of inconsistency, people may have to seek out new or reinterpret old
information, or change abandon cherished beliefs, or change patterns of behavior. People will generally
choose the easiest of these (the path of least resistance), which often means changing their attitudes
instead of their behavior. Most consistency theories have three parts:
1. They specify the conditions that are required for consistency and inconsistency of cognitions.
2. They assume that inconsistency is unpleasant and therefore motivates people to restore consistency.
3. They specify the conditions that are needed to restore consistency.

Cognitive dissonance and attitude change:
 Cognitive dissonance theory: the theory that inconsistencies produce psychological discomfort
(cognitive dissonance: the uncomfortable feeling people experience when they have too thoughts or
cognitions conflict with one another), leading people to rationalize their behavior or change their
attitudes.

A memorable study of cognitive dissonance: People who were paid a small amount to lie came to change
their attitudes to believe their own lie; people who were paid a large amount to lie did not.

Justifying effort: A second memorable study of cognitive dissonance introduced the idea of effort
justification: the finding that when people suffer or work hard or make sacrifices, they will try to convince
themselves that it is worthwhile. Dissonance makes people seek to justify and rationalize any suffering or
effort they have made. For example: People who suffer more to get into a group end up liking the group
more. (Doet denken aan een ontgroening bij een studentenvereniging.)

Justifying choices: The next big advance in cognitive dissonance theory was centered around having a
choice: Choice is necessary for dissonance and attitude change. After making difficult choices, people
sometimes experience post-decision dissonance: cognitive dissonance experienced after making a
difficult choice, typically reducing the attractiveness of the chosen alternative and decreasing the
attractiveness of rejected alternatives.

Advances in dissonance theory: Two advances in dissonance theory:
 Dissonance is marked by unpleasant arousal. Only people who feel discomfort and attribute it to
their inconsistent behavior, are driven to rationalize what they have done.
 People may have some desire to be consistent in the privacy of their minds, but they have a much
stronger desire to be seen by other people as consistent.

To avoid dissonance, people sometimes seek out things that confirm what they already believe, called
selective exposure: refers to the tendency of individuals to select information that supports their
preexisting views and avoid information that contradicts their preexisting views. Some Internet sites use
forced selective exposure, called filter bubbles: are algorithms used on the Internet to selectively guess
what information a user would like to see based on information available about that use (e.g., previous
web pages viewed, click behavior).

3

, Is the drive for consistency rooted in nature or nurture: The drive for consistency may be rooted in our
biological nature and strengthened by learning and socialization, and it may involve both parts of the
duplex mind.

Money matters: Would you sell your soul for 1$?
People are willing to do questionable things for large sums of money. But when they perform the same
actions for a small amount of money, people feel a need to rationalize and justify those actions, so they
change their attitudes.

Food for thought: Would you eat a bug or a worm?
People will sometimes choose to suffer as a consequence of expecting to suffer, if they have coped with
their expectation by changing some of their relevant beliefs and attitudes.

Do attitudes really predict behaviors?
 Attacking attitudes: According to Alan Wicker, attitudes are more likely to be unrelated or only slightly
related to overt behaviors than that attitudes will be closely related to actions.
 Defending attitudes: Attitude researchers were seeking ways to show how attitudes actually might
have a closer link to behavior, as reaction on the research of Alan Wicker. They found that attitudes
predict behavior best if any or all of the following conditions are met:
 Attitude measures are very specific.
 Behaviors are aggregated across time and different situations.
 Attitudes are consciously prominent and influence how the person thinks about the choices he or
she faces. A broad attitude can influence specific behavior, but only if it has a chance to shape how
the person interprets and construes the specifics of the here-and-now situation.
 Attitudes are highly accessible: how easily something comes to mind.
 The theory of planned behavior: If a person intends to do a behavior, then it is likely that he or she
will actually do it. Behavioral intentions are determined by:
 Behavioral attitude (person’s attitude)
 Subjective norms: an individual’s perceptions about whether significant others think he or she
should (or should not) perform the behavior in question.
 Perceived behavioral control: an individual’s beliefs about whether he or she can actually
perform the behavior in question.

The social side of sex: A-B inconsistency and erotic plasticity
Attitude researchers have struggled with what they call the A-B problem: the problem of inconsistency
between attitudes (A) and behaviors (B). Sex provides ample room for contradictions between people
attitudes and their actual behaviors. Especially, women’s behavior is inconsistent with their attitudes.
Men’s attitudes predict their sexual behavior much better than women’s. The reason is not that women
are generally inconsistent. Rather, women’s sexual responses are specific to the person, situation, and
what it all means, so their general attitudes are not highly relevant. In contrast, men tend to like and
dislike the same things day in and day out, regardless of specific situations, so their general attitudes
predict their behavior much better.

4

Dit zijn jouw voordelen als je samenvattingen koopt bij Stuvia:

Bewezen kwaliteit door reviews

Studenten hebben al meer dan 850.000 samenvattingen beoordeeld. Zo weet jij zeker dat je de beste keuze maakt!

In een paar klikken geregeld

Geen gedoe — betaal gewoon eenmalig met iDeal, creditcard of je Stuvia-tegoed en je bent klaar. Geen abonnement nodig.

Direct to-the-point

Studenten maken samenvattingen voor studenten. Dat betekent: actuele inhoud waar jij écht wat aan hebt. Geen overbodige details!

Veelgestelde vragen

Wat krijg ik als ik dit document koop?

Je krijgt een PDF, die direct beschikbaar is na je aankoop. Het gekochte document is altijd, overal en oneindig toegankelijk via je profiel.

Tevredenheidsgarantie: hoe werkt dat?

Onze tevredenheidsgarantie zorgt ervoor dat je altijd een studiedocument vindt dat goed bij je past. Je vult een formulier in en onze klantenservice regelt de rest.

Van wie koop ik deze samenvatting?

Stuvia is een marktplaats, je koop dit document dus niet van ons, maar van verkoper anneeg. Stuvia faciliteert de betaling aan de verkoper.

Zit ik meteen vast aan een abonnement?

Nee, je koopt alleen deze samenvatting voor €4,48. Je zit daarna nergens aan vast.

Is Stuvia te vertrouwen?

4,6 sterren op Google & Trustpilot (+1000 reviews)

Afgelopen 30 dagen zijn er 68175 samenvattingen verkocht

Opgericht in 2010, al 15 jaar dé plek om samenvattingen te kopen

Begin nu gratis

Samenvatting

Complete samenvatting deeltoets 2: Psychologie van de communicator

Document informatie

Onderwerpen

Gekoppeld boek

Meer samenvattingen voor studieboek

Geschreven voor

Verkoper

Ontvangen beoordelingen

Voorbeeld van de inhoud