USE – Quality of Life –
Explorative course
Brey, P. (2012), "Well-being in philosophy, psychology
and economics", in Brey, P., Briggle, A. and Spence, E.
(eds) (2012), The Good Life in a Technological Age,
Routledge
Three major types of theories of well-being in philosophy: hedonist, desire-fulfillment and
objective theories.
Philosophical theories of well-being
Hedonist theories hold that only pleasure is intrinsically good, and pain is the only intrinsic
bad. To strive for wellbeing is to strive for the greatest balance of pleasure over pain.
Quantitative hedonism, or simple hedonism, is the view that the value of pleasure is only
determined by its quantity and not by its quality. It was originally proposed by Jeremy
Bentham.
A powerful objection to quantitative hedonism, brought forward by John Stuart Mill, is that
certain types of pleasure seem more desirable, or worth having, than others. ‘It is better to
be an unsatisfied human than a satisfied pig’. Experiences of friendship, knowledge, art,
contemplation (het nadenken over iets; mediteren) and refinement in taste, are more
worthwhile than the so-called lower pleasures. This is called qualitative hedonism.
One of the most powerful objections to (qualitative and quantitative) hedonism is the
experience machine objection of Robert Nozick. The ‘experience machine’ uses
neurostimulation to simulate a nonexistent world that provides the user with constant
gratification (bevrediging). The user experiences any type of pleasure, without being able to
distinguish the simulated world from a real one.
Mental state theories hold that well-being depends on the presence of certain types of
mental states in humans. These could be cognitive, affective, emotional, volitional, or mixed.
Hedonism is the most prominent type of mental state theory, followed by happiness
theories of well-being.
On a cognitive view of happiness, happiness involves a positive attitude to one’s life as a
whole. Hybrid views hold that happiness is constituted by different types of cognitive states.
On hedonistic views, happiness is a purely hedonic state and therefore either equals
pleasure or constitutes a particular form of it.
A happiness theory of well-being is a particular type of hedonistic theory.
Desire-Fulfillment Theories
Desire-fulfillment theories, also called preference-satisfaction theories, hold that well-being
lies in the fulfillment of one’s desires.
Welfare economists wanted to have objective criteria for measuring well-being or utility in
economic subjects. However, pleasure and pain are in people’s heads and therefore cannot
be easily measured.
A more fundamental advantage of desire-fulfillment theories over hedonist theories is that
they are capable of avoiding the ‘experience machine’ dilemma.
Three major types of desire-fulfillment theories have been proposed:
- Simple desire-fulfillment theories (also called present desire theories) hold that one is
better off to the extent that one’s current desires are fulfilled, and the best life is one in
which all one’s actual desires are fulfilled.
, o Objection: many desires that people have seem to go against their long-term
interests.
- Reflective (or comprehensive) desire-fulfillment theories give priority to one’s reflective
preferences that concern one’s life as a whole.
o Objection: may result in choices that are not optimal for a particular person.
- Informed desire-fulfillment theories hold that the best life of one could lead is the life in
which al desires are fulfilled that one would have if one were fully informed of one’s
situation.
A general objection to desire-fulfillment theories is that they present a very abstract, formal
theory of well-being that does not tell us anything about the sources of well-being. In
addition, they have a difficult time accounting for so-called defective desires (desires that
seem to be bad for one, such as base, poorly cultivated and pointless desires).
Objective List Theories
Objective list theories hold that well-being is the result of a number of objective conditions
of persons rather than the subjective experience of pleasure or the fulfillment of subjective
desires. Well-being is attained by living a life in which one is in possession of all or most of
the goods on the list.
Bare objective theories present a list of items that have no single unifying element. Each
item on the list contributes to well-being independently of the others.
Explanatory objective theories identify a fundamental element that unifies all the items on
the list and explains why they contribute to well-being.
Perfectionist theories hold that what items on the list have in common is their contribution
to the realization or perfecting of human nature. Perfectionist theories urge people to put in
effort to develop their faculties, so as to excel in art, science, culture, or sports, as well as to
excel in everyday living.
One famous perfectionist theory is Aristotle’s theory of eudaimonia. Aristotle held that the
good for human beings is found in the cultivation of human virtues. This would result in the
highest good for human beings, which he called eudaimonia, or personal flourishing.
The neo-Aristotelian perfectionist theory holds that human nature is geared towards three
types of perfection:
- Physical perfection is the optimal functioning of our biological systems and finds its
highest form in athleticism.
- Theoretical and practical perfection are the optimal formation of intentions and beliefs
and our optimal way of acting on them.
The capability theory of well-being is a neo-Aristotelian theory according to which well-being
is dependent on capabilities, which are real possibilities of persons to be or do something.
A frequent objection to objective list theories is that they are paternalist by claiming that
things may be good for people even if they do not want or value them.
Another objection is that objective list theories deny that people are different, and that
different things may be good for different people.
A final objection to objective list theories is that items on the list often seem incomparable.
Well-being in psychology
Seligman argued that psychology had largely been preoccupied with studying and treating
mental illness, and that it should balance this focus with an alternative approach with a
focus on studying and improving people’s positive functioning and well-being. This approach
is called positive psychology.
The psychological study of happiness and well-being is sometimes referred to as ‘happiness
psychology’, ‘psychology of happiness’ or ‘positive psychology’. It does not only include well-
being but also the study and nurturing of talent and genius, so the scope is broader than of
happiness psychology.
‘Hedonic psychology’ refers to the study of positive and negative feelings.
, The central concept in the psychology of happiness is subjective well-being (SWB). It is an
individual’s current evaluation of their happiness. There are three major components to
SWB: positive affect (pleasure feelings), negative affect (painful feelings), and life satisfaction
(how people assess the balance between positive and negative affect in their lives as a
whole, and how well their lives measure up to their aspirations and goals.
Happiness is considered to be a temporary state of positive affect, whereas life satisfaction is
a cognitive appraisal that tends to change little over time.
The goal of studies in SWB is to find correlations between self-reported positive states and
other variables, such as individual traits and social indicators like income and health.
The study of objective well-being (OWB) requires the recoding of physiological data in real
time, such as brain activity or bodily responses, which are then interpreted as representing
either positive or negative feelings and emotions.
Theories and Applications
Hedonic psychology: the study of what makes experiences and life pleasant or unpleasant. It
is concerned with feelings of pleasure and pain, of interest and boredom, of joy and sorrow,
and of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.
Eudaimonic approaches hold that happiness includes objective factors that go beyond
subjective experiences and attitudes. It includes the actualization of human potential.
Theory of authentic happiness is an influential eudaimonic theory by Seligman. A good life if
a life the integrates three types of lives:
- Pleasant life: attained by having positive feelings about the present, past and future.
- Engaged life: life in which engagement and involvement are pursued, in work, intimate
relations and leisure. In engaged activity, one’s attention is completely focused and time
loses meaning.
- Meaningful life: one’s signature strengths and talents are used in the service of things
that one believes to be bigger than oneself.
Well-being in economics
Happiness economics: a new branch of economics that studies the economic conditions for
happiness and well-being.
In neoclassical economics, economic behavior is explained in terms of attempts of
individuals to increase their utility.
Utility is a measure of relative satisfaction, and the utility of a good or service is the total
satisfaction derived from consuming it.
The notion of utility in neoclassical economics takes on a n explanatory role, instead of the
normative role it has in utilitarianism.
Ordinal utility only determines relative preferences between pairs of goods or services, but
does not define any absolute measure of satisfaction for them (cardinally measured).
Within neoclassical economics, the concept of utility is mostly used to explain economic
behavior and is not, as it is in utilitarianism, a normative notion that prescribes how one
should act. An important exception is welfare economics, a normative branch of
microeconomics that aims to measure and improve social welfare. It aims to assist the public
sector by developing and evaluating economic solutions that aim to improve social welfare
by generating outcomes that maximize overall utility.
Happiness Economics
Happiness economics often incorporates psychological approaches and typically measure
happiness in terms of self-reported SWB. Its major application are in public policy, in which it
is helpful in evaluating and improving policies that aim to improve social welfare or
individual happiness.
Quality of Life Indices
Happiness and quality of life are sometimes used interchangeably, but quality of live may
also refer to ‘livability’. Livability is not a quality of individuals but of environments or
