Week 1: From Roman to post-Roman (LEC: Middle Ages)
- The concept of the Middle Ages
o Negative sound: few things that are called Medieval that mean something
positive classical almost always has a positive meaning; medieval
almost always has a negative connotation
o Humanists (14th in 15th century): something new, making the time
between Antiquity and the Renaissance that 'didn't matter'
o Grand Narrative invented by Edward Gibbon (1737-1794) with his book
'The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire': a time of decline
o There will be a paradigm shift: a period of creativity and change (Peter
Brown); a more positive view of late antiquity
Like Brown, Rosenwein distances himself from the concept of
'Decline and Fall', rather a transformation process
o The Middle Ages were a period of barbarism; In the Enlightenment
superstition became more important; During Romanticism, a more
positive image emerged: Medieval people were more authentic than
classical civilization (and thus the romanticization of their own origins)
- The Romans and the Barbarians
o Barbarians are wild, brutal people who are not civilized; a non-Greek
speaking person
There is no understanding for other peoples here
o Among the Romans, Barbarians were also persons who had not been
rejected by Roman expansion
Stigmatized by Roman historiography
o According to Rosenwein, barbarians are sedentary societies, rather than
nomadic peoples who moved around
There are cultural differences between barbarians and Romans,
but no biological difference (which was assumed until the Second
World War); the ethnic identity is flexible
o Ethnogenesis: the 'disappearance' of peoples because they adopted a
new ethnic identity
o There are few if any major wars or violent struggles between the
barbarians and the Romans
o Romans had a high tax burden because of the maintenance of the army,
barbarians did not have this: they did this cheaper
The barbarians were included in the Roman army for this purpose
o Criticism of the transformation thesis (The Fall of Rome, Bryan Ward-
Perkeins): there is a 'too' positive view of barbarians
Establishes a link between barbaric invasion as 'peaceful' and
modern Germany that wants to construct a positive image after
the Second World War
o Kyle Harper places an important role on climate and microbes as the
reason for the fall of the Roman Empire
o Consequences of three major epidemics
Under Emperor Antoninus Pius in 165
In the middle third century (249-262): the epidemic of Cyprian of
Carthage
, Around the middle of the sixth century: Justinian's epidemic
(breaks out in 541)
o No coincidence: Romans themselves created the conditions for an
outbreak
Participation in and development of a global trade network that
allowed microbes to enter Europe from Africa and China
Large grain transports (annona) ensure the spread of a rat
population
The great possibilities for transport spread the diseases
o Climatic conditions caused a deterioration in agricultural production (no
sunlight for a year and a half due to a volcanic eruption, the average
temperature also fell in the period between 450 and 700)
- The Romans and Christianity
o Constantine the Great: on the eve of an important battle with his great
rival, he saw a great sign in the sky 🡪 a sign of Christ
He legalized Christianity in 313 AD. with the Edict of Milan, he also
founded a new Christian city (Byzantium, also: Constantinople)
with which his active support for this faith was physically
expressed; on his deathbed he was converted/baptized
Constantine called the First Council of Nicaea in 325 AD. together,
where a collection of bishops came together to banish Arianism
(belief in Jesus as 'god').
o Revolutionary Action: Christians persecuted by the Roman state became
a staple during Late Antiquity
Religion became of general importance (no longer a matter of the
city or elite), with Christianity emerging around 400 AD. becomes
the dominant religion within the Roman Empire
o Christianity was different from the other faiths within the Roman Empire:
it required different behavior
Christianity is more like a philosophy than an actual faith; this idea
is reinforced by the scriptures (including the Bible)
● However, it differs from philosophy: philosophical writings
are written for and by a literate elite, but Christian writings
are of moderate literary quality
However, it remains a fairly primitive religion for the well-educated
Romans
o The Church Fathers make Christianity 'salonfähig': acceptable to the elite
Four Church Fathers (‘unity’): Gregory the Great (c. 540–604);
Ambrose of Milan (333-397); Augustine of Hippo (354-430);
Hieronymus (van Stridon) (c. 342-420)
● Often with an elite background, with a good (rhetorical)
education and had good contact with the highest circles of
the Roman Empire
● Contributed in the following manner
o Hieronymus: translated the Bible into (good) Latin
, o Together they wrote commentaries on the books of
the Bible and showed deeper meanings
o Typology: relationship between the Old and New
Testament
o Definition of Christian doctrine: how do the three figures (father, son, holy
spirit) in Christianity relate to each other
o Formation of Christian society: defending Christianity in a number of
conflicts
o In summary
All the Church Fathers had excellent training, especially in Latin
oratory
The Bible was translated into Latin and learned commentaries
were written on it
The Church Fathers contributed to the definition of the Christian
faith
The Church Fathers contributed to the formation of a Christian
society (monasticism, fight against paganism, cult of saints)
Seminar 13 nov.
- Edward Gibbon versus Peter Brown
o Gibbon (The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire) argues
that the Roman Empire collapsed due to the rise of Christianity; this idea
emerged at the end of the eighteenth century (the period of rationalization
and scientific thinking)
o Brown (The World of Late Antiquity) describes it more on a social level,
seeing late antiquity as a period of growth and innovation; he wrote this in
response to Gibbon
- Transformation of the Roman Empire
o Shrinking of cities, which led to changes in infrastructure
o The central authority disappeared and more local authorities emerged,
due to the greatness of the Empire; provincialization: power went to the
edges/provinces
The Empire was attacked from the north and east, creating
pressure; this led to external problems (the Persians and
Barbarians), which caused internal problems
● A succession crisis arose within the Empire, with more than
twenty emperors in a short period. Mid. In the third century,
emperors were no longer elected from the senate, but
rather from the province
● This was tried to be solved with the tetrarchy of Diocletian,
which ultimately became a division; this division became
the Western and Eastern Roman Empires
This external pressure caused the army to expand, which led to
recruitment from outside
o Rise of Christianity (originated in Palestine in the first century B.C.)
, Joined the middle class in Rome; Christianity was a religion for
everyone (mainly in the fringe areas, which could never be 'really
Roman', but were now included)
312: Battle of Milvian Bridge, where Emperor Constantine had a
vision to accept Christ so he could win the battle against his great
enemy
313: Edict of Milan: the official recognition of the Christian faith,
ensuring tolerance for all religions within the Empire
325: Council of Nicaea: doctrines were established
● Within this council agreements were made about the trinity
o There were two major movements: Adrians versus
Athanasians
▪ Adrians believed that God was divine and
Christ was created
▪ Athanasians held that God is divine, but
Christ is both god (because he was born of
God) and man; Christ has two natures
● Creed (a set of articles summarizing a belief, or an
important formulation or saying that expresses the core of
a religion)
● Discussion about the Easter date
● Essay written on church law
394: Christianity became the state religion
o 'New Order': at the beginning of the fifth century, the Roman Empire
slowly lost its influence
410: Siege of Rome, invasion of the Visigoths (who had been
invading Roman provinces since the third century)
476: Last emperor Romulus Augustulus deposed and succeeded
by the first Barbarian king Odoacer
Eastern Roman Empire
● Retains one emperor
● Trying to expand
● Ultimately small, but tough; increasingly isolated
● Rise of iconoclasm (the resistance to the veneration of
icons, in which images are removed or destroyed for
ideological reasons) in the early seventh century (726-754)
o Due to wars, invasions, disease and earthquakes,
Byzantium was seen as a scapegoat (as punishment
for venerating 'icons')
