1
Samenvatting persuasive communication
Chapter 1: Why study persuasion?
Aims and goals
One of the points we stress throughout this book is that people aren’t that easy to persuade. It is
tempting to believe that if one only knew the right button to push, one could persuade anybody.
More often than not, though, there are multiple buttons to push, in the right sequence, and the
sequence is constantly changing.
Persuasion is not a dirty word
The study of persuasion has gotten some bad publicity over the years. Everyone seems to agree that
the subject is fascinating, but some are reluctant to embrace a field of study that conjures up images
of manipulation, deceit, or brainwashing. There is, after all, a sinister side to persuasion. Persuasion is
the backbone of many communicative endeavours.
Persuasion is our friend
In short, persuasion is the cornerstone of a number of positive, prosocial endeavours. Very little of
the good that we see in the world could not be accomplished without persuasion. Persuasion, then,
is a powerful and often prosocial force.
The persuasiveness of persuasion: you can run but you can’t hide
There are more ways to persuade than ever before. You have the traditional persuasion and in the
last two decades social media has been added to the mix.
Tipping points, buzz marketing, and word of mouth
Key concepts and principles associated with viral persuasion were laid out by Malcolm Gladwell in his
bestseller, The Tipping Point (2000). Based on what he calls “the law of the few,” a small number of
influential people can generate a groundswell of support for an idea, brand, or phenomenon. If a
message gains sufficient traction, it reaches a tipping point and becomes “contagious.” In order to
reach the tipping point, however, a number of things have to happen.
- Über influencers. First, the right kinds of people must be involved. Gladwell identifies three
types of people who are essential to the process. Mavens possess specialized expertise. They
are in the know. Mavens needn’t be rich or famous, but they must be ahead of the curve. In
addition to mavens, Gladwell states that connectors are also essential. Based on the viral
metaphor, they are carriers. They have large social networks. When connectors learn from
mavens what the “next big thing” is, they spread the word. The last type Gladwell identifies is
salespeople. They receive the message from a connector and then talk it up within their own
circle of friends.
- Orchestrating the next big thing. In addition to having the right kinds of people, some
additional conditions must be satisfied for an idea to go viral. Context is critical. The idea
must come along at the right time and place. An idea also must possess stickiness, which
means that it is inherently attractive. Without some sort of natural appeal, people won’t
gravitate toward the idea or pass it along. Scalability is another requirement: It must be easy
to ramp up production of the idea, product, or message to meet demand. Finally, effortless
transfer is yet another ingredient in the recipe for an effective viral campaign. A viral
campaign has to leverage free media.
, 2
- Infectious or inexplicable? Although viral marketing holds considerable potential, it is often a
hit-or-miss strategy, with far more misses than hits. What’s more, evidence for the
effectiveness of tipping points is largely anecdotal, and there is no guarantee that an idea will
gain traction. If one does, its shelf life is often limited. The Word of Mouth Marketing
Association (WOMM) offers advice for conducting viral campaigns. The very concept of viral
marketing, however, is something of an oxymoron. A viral campaign is planned to appear
unplanned. It is contrived to seem genuine. As consumers grow wise to the strategy, it will
become less effective. There are also ethical questions about using friends as shills. The FTC
now requires any online endorsement that involves compensation to be disclosed.
Nudges: sometimes less is more
The ubiquitous nature of persuasion is also illustrated by nudge theory, developed by Richard
Thaler and Cass Sunstein (2008). They maintain that subtle changes in the way choices are
presented to people can influence, or “nudge,” them to behave in certain ways. Although some
critics have accused nudge theory of being paternalistic, others argue that people are free to
resist nudges if they wish. That said, some nudges may be perceived as more like shoves.
New persuasion: digital and online influence
social media isn’t just an entertaining diversion, it is an important tool for influence.
eWom: digital buzz
Earlier, we mentioned the importance of viral persuasion and word-of-mouth (WOM). Like WOM,
electronic word of mouth (eWOM) is all the rage. Like WOM, eWOM is most effective when it is
perceived as genuine rather than manufactured and peer driven rather than commercially
sponsored. eWOM enjoys several advantages over traditional advertising and marketing techniques.
It operates largely through interpersonal channels, lending it an air of authenticity. It is inexpensive
compared to traditional media. And it is self-perpetuating. Moreover, eWOM is far more effective
than traditional media at reaching younger audiences.
Sponsored content: the native advertisers are getting restless
The rise of social media has spawned a surge in advertising masquerading as genuine peer-to-peer
influence. Native advertising involves ads posing as news stories. Native ads function as “clickbait.”
Opinion mining and sentiment tracking: I feel you
The Web is an opinion-rich environment. People constantly share their attitudes, opinions, and
values via social media. And marketers are listening. Many companies now specialize in opinion
mining and sentiment tracking by monitoring social media to gauge the public’s mood in nearly real
time. As sophisticated as such methods seem, a problem with opinion mining is that the data is often
“squishy”. Nevertheless, programmers are getting better at analysing and interpreting words related
to feelings, emotions, and opinions.
Gamification: you’ve got game
gamification is being used to stimulate consumer interest and involvement. Gamification applies
video-game methods to other contexts to increase consumer engagement. Transforming a mundane
task into a game can make it more fun and exciting. Games also can be used to influence.
Gamification is not without its critics, however. Ian Bogost, a professor and expert in video games as
cultural artifacts, cautioned that “‘exploitationware’ is a more accurate name for gamification’s true
, 3
purpose”. Critics charge that earning badges and points trivializes activities such as learning, working,
exercising, or participating in social causes.
Crowdsourcing and crowdfunding: lending a helping hand
crowdsourcing puts out an open call for anyone online to participate in completing a task or solving a
problem. Crowdsourcing is premised on the assumption that wisdom is not the exclusive province of
experts, but is distributed throughout the commons. While crowdsourcing has assisted in solving
problems in astronomy, legislation, language translation, and urban planning, among many areas, it
is not without its critics. Detractors complain that crowdsourcing is exploitative; it relies on the
unpaid labour and efforts of others. Another complaint is that the wisdom of the commons isn’t
always so wise. A related strategy, crowdfunding, involves raising money through online donations.
On the plus side, crowdfunding gives “the little guy” or a good cause the chance to be noticed. On
the downside, some of the requests are scams and most start-ups fail.
Persuasive technology: my heart says yes, but my watch says no.
Persuasive technology focuses on devices “aimed at changing users’ attitudes or behaviours through
persuasion and social influence, but not through coercion or deception”. Smart devices and wearable
technology “are not just persuasive but specifically aimed at forging new habits”. Persuasion will
continue to play a major role in traditional contexts, such as advertising and marketing. It is worth
noting, though, that persuasion also plays a key role in a variety of not-so-obvious contexts. We
examine two such contexts next: persuasion in the sciences, and persuasion in the arts.
Persuasion in the sciences
You may not think of them this way, but scientists are persuaders. Scientists often have to convince
others that their research possesses scientific merit and social value. They also have to argue for the
superiority of their theories over rival theories. In this respect, Thomas Kuhn argues that all scientists
employ “techniques of persuasion in their efforts to establish the superiority of their own paradigms
over those of their rivals”.
Persuasion in the arts
Another not-so-obvious context for persuasion is the arts. Art serves more than an aesthetic or
decorative function. Artists have strong opinions and they lend expression to their opinions in and
through their work. Think about painting for a moment. Many of the famous works hanging in
museums were created out of a sense of social conscience. Using images rather than words, artists
comment on social conditions, criticize society, and attempt to transform the social order.
Persuasion in interpersonal settings
The extent of influence exerted in the interpersonal arena should not be underestimated. Despite all
the money spent on traditional advertising and the increasing amounts being spent on new media,
most influence attempts still take place in face-to-face settings. Why is interpersonal influence so
much more effective? Because it seems more genuine and less conspicuous. In interpersonal
encounters, others’ motives may be less transparent. Kenneth Burke (1966), among others, has
written that humans are, by their very nature, symbol-using beings. One vital aspect of human
symbolicity involves the tendency to persuade others. We are symbol users, and one of the principal
functions of symbol usage is persuasion. The recognition that social influence is an essential,
pervasive feature of human symbolic action provides the strongest possible justification for the study
of persuasion. Persuasion is one of the major underlying impulses for human communication.
, 4
Five benefits of studying persuasion
1. The instrumental function: be all that you can be
One good reason for learning about persuasion is so that you can become a more effective
persuader yourself. We refer to this as the instrumental function of persuasion.
2. The knowledge and awareness function: inquiring minds want to know
Another good reason for learning about persuasion is because it will enhance your knowledge
and awareness of a variety of persuasive processes. An additional benefit of learning about how
persuasion functions concerns overcoming habitual persuasion. Many people rely on habitual
forms of persuasion, regardless of whether they are effective. They get comfortable with a few
strategies and tactics that they use over and over again.
3. The defensive function: Duck and cover
A third reason for learning about how persuasion operates is vital in our view: The study of
persuasion serves a defensive function. By studying how and why influence attempts succeed or
fail, you can become a more discerning consumer of persuasive messages. It is worth noting that
people tend to underestimate the influence of advertising on themselves and overestimate its
effects on others, a phenomenon known as the third-person effect.
4. The debunking function: Puh-saw
A fourth reason for studying persuasion is that it serves a debunking function. Traditional wisdom
isn’t always right, and it’s worth knowing when it’s wrong. By learning about research findings on
persuasion, the reader can learn to ferret out the true from the false, the fact from the fiction.
5. Well-being and self-worth: I feel good
A fifth benefit of learning about persuasion is that the ability to persuade others improves one’s
subjective sense of well-being. There is a sense of satisfaction that comes from persuading
others. Researchers have found that influencing others satisfies five basic needs, which are
accuracy, belonging, self-worth, control, and meaning.
Two criticisms of persuasion
Does learning about persuasion foster manipulation?
We’ve already touched on one of the common criticisms of studying persuasion: the notion that it
fosters a manipulative approach to communication. a few general arguments can be offered in
response to this concern. First, our principal focus in this text is on the means of persuasion. We view
the means of persuasion not so much as moral or immoral, but rather as amoral, or ethically neutral.
We believe that first and foremost, a persuader’s motives determine whether a given influence
attempt is good or bad, right or wrong, ethical or unethical.
A second response is that The study of persuasion performs a defensive function insofar as it
educates people to become more discriminating consumers of persuasive messages.
A third response that bears mentioning is that in denouncing the study of persuasion,
antimanipulation types are also attempting to persuade.
