Advanced Research Methods
Qualitative Organizational Research – Gillian Symon & Catherine Cassel –
Radboud University - 08-10-2020 - DienekeF
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Chapter Keywords Page
Chapter 2 Philosophies – Epistemology – Ontology – Positivism – Qualitative Neo- 15
positivism – Interpretivism – Critical theory – Postmodernism &
Poststructuralism – Postcolonialism & indigenous epistemology
Lecture 1 – Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods 5
Epistemology – Relativism – Philosophies – Fit
Chapter 12 Criteria Qualitative research - Guba & Lincoln – Credibility, 204
Transferability, Dependability, Confirmability – Contingent criteria –
Tracy universal criteria
Lecture 2 – Approaches to research 9
Engaged scholarships – Gap – Theory building – Forms of engagement – Eisenhardt
method – Goia method – Delta method – Ethnographic – Discourse – Criteria
Chapter 17 Participation Observation – variations observation – ethical practice PO – 296
Research relationship – Political nature PO
Chapter 19 Practising Organizational Ethnography – History – Sensitivity hidden 331
dimensions – sensitivity interplay – Issues in organization ethnography
Chapter 20 Case studies – What is it? – How to – Case study myths – challenges and 351
prospects
Chapter 22 Using documents in organizational research – defining a document – 389
scoping research – collecting documents – analysing –
positivist/interpretivist/critical theory/constructivist approach
Lecture 3 – Data collection 16
Case study – Ethnography – Participation Observation – Silverman – Ethical &
Methodological considerations
Chapter 23 Grounded theory – Fundamentals of classic grounded theory – Novice 408
researcher
Chapter 24 Template analysis – Key features – developing template analysis – 426
Interpreting and presenting – advantages/disadvantages
Chapter 26 Discourse analysis and Discursive research – Research design issues – 473
Discursive engagement – Discursive approaches – Deconstruction –
Foucauldian – Critical discourse – intertextual
Lecture 4 – Data analysis 24
Discourse analysis – Grounded theory – Template analysis
Chapter 5 Reflexivity in qualitative research – Conceptualizing – Process of 72
reflexivity – Tensions and limitations – Conducting – Reflexive awareness-
Multiple levels of reflexivity
Chapter 6 Ethical Research practice – The Other (Kant) – Research practice – The 90
importance of questionability – The goods of research practice –
Cultivating Research practice – Virtues of research practice
Lecture 5 – How to write it up 29
Ethical positioning – Reflexivity – Reflection – Problem of qualitative theory
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Chapter 2 Philosophies underpinning qualitative research
Cuncliffe highlights; Our metatheoretical assumptions have very practical consequences for the way
we do research in terms of our topic focus of study, what we see as data, how we collect and analyse
data’s, how we theorize and how we write up our research. Therefore, they are a key part of the
methodology within which our methods of data collection and analysis are located.
Define Epistemology
Johnson and Duberly; argue that the term epistemology derives from two Greek words; epistme –
knowledge and logos – information/theory. Epistemology is the study of the criteria by which we can
know what does and does not constitute warranted or scientific knowledge.
It is often though that what is true is something that corresponds with the given facts; empirical
evidence is the ultimate arbiter. This view had had a direct influence on the evolution of qualitative
research. There is an epistemological choice here which influences the form the qualitative research
takes between an objectivist (realist) and a subjectivist (relativist) epistemological stance.
Define Ontology
The term ontology is also a combination of two Greek words; ontos- being and logos-
theory/knowledge. Ontology is a branch of philosophy dealing with the essence of phenomena and
the nature of existence. Ontological questions are about if things are real or is it just something we
perceive? It is useful to differentiate between realist and subjective assumptions about the status of
reality.
Realist assumptions involve the view that it exists out there, independent of our own cognition.
Subjectivist assumptions involve the view that social reality is a creation, or projection of our own
cognition. It is important that we are aware that we cannot operate without adopting some
epistemological and ontological position.
Positivism
The development of management and organizational research has been characterized by the
domination of positivism as an underlying philosophy. According to Keat and Urry two of the most
important characteristics of positivist epistemology are;
• The claim that science should focus on only directly observable phenomena -> Realist
• Theories should be tested, in a hypothetico-deductive fashion, with the facts neutrally
gathered from a readily observable external world.
A key aspect of positivism is the tendency to reduce human behaviour to the status of automatic
responses excited by external stimuli wherein the subjective dimension to that behaviour is lost.
Therefore, human behaviour is conceptualized and made measurable/objectively observable. This is
often called erklären (Outhwaite) and usually investigates human behaviour through the use of
hypothetico-deductive method (Popper). This means the aim is to generate generalizable knowledge
through testing from a theory.
The criticism about this philosophy is its lack of attention to subjective nature of human thoughts and
actions. This led to more philosophical stances in the management field. More a quantitative view.
Qualitative Neo-positivism
Some people reject the use of hypothetic methodology and the exclusion of subjectivity, but will
sometimes have a commitment to being able to investigate human intersubjective processes by
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gathering facts from a readily observable external world. The result is a kind of qualitative positivism
or neo-empiricism, which is different from positivism but shares the n3eed for a theory-neutral
observational language.
Using qualitative neo-positivism for interviews for example will mean that you will follow a research
protocol and look for a context-free truth about reality (Alvesson). So, a researcher will try to remove
itself from the process and will look for the objective picture.
Interpretivism
A variety of different philosophical approaches are covered by the term interpretivism. All traditions
that takes human interpretation as the starting point for developing knowledge about the social
world (Prasad). Important in these traditions is Verstehen, which tries to understand the actual
meanings and interpretations people ascribe to phenomena in order to describe and explain their
behaviour. Examples are; qualitative work that is informed by symbolic interactionism,
ethnomethodology and hermeneutics.
Some things can be seen as neo-positivist like that there is a real world with real phenomena, but
that our understanding of that reality is socially constructed. Some traditions are more subjectivist
however. One point of connection is that interpretivist in their search for the understanding of
interpretation offers different approaches to how empirical work is conducted and the role of the
researcher within it.
Hermeneutics; the meaning of a part can only be understood if it is related to the whole. They key
device is the hermeneutic circle; there is a pre-understanding of a phenomenon before we really
understand it.
Ethnomethodology builds on the philosophy of phenomenology to seek to understand and interpret
how individuals make sense of their life worlds (Sensemaking).
Critical Theory
Focuses on the inherent connections between politics, values and knowledge and thereby provokes a
deeper consideration of the politics and values that underpin and legitimize the authority of scientific
knowledge (Alvesson). It is to understand how the practices and institutions of management are
developed and legitimized withing relation of power and dominations such as capitalism. It believes
that systems can be transformed to enable emancipation, which involved a continuing process of
critical self-reflection and self-transformation.
Prasad and Caproni identify 4 broad themes;
1. An emphasis on the social construction of reality
2. A focus on issues of power and ideology
3. The need to understand any social organizational phenomenon with respect to its multiple
interconnections and its location within holistic historical contexts.
4. The importance of praxis; the ongoing construction of social arrangements that are
conductive to the flourishing of the human condition.
From a critical theory perspective, qualitative researchers should be concerned to develop new
modes of engagement that allows participants to pursue interests and objectives that are currently
excluded by the dominant management discourses.
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Postmodernism and Poststructuralism
These two have both a cous upon language, discourse and destruction, therefore we will treat them
together. Qualitative researchers from this view favour a position where subjectivist ontology is
combines with a subjectivist epistemology. This involves abandoning the rational and unified subject
in favour of a socially and linguistically decentred and fragmented subject.
From a postmodern perspective; any attempt to develop a rational and generalizable basis to
scientific enquiry that explains the world from an objective standpoint is flawed. A key part of
postmodernism is a focus on language and the idea that language is never innocent. Knowledge is
made by language.
Qualitative research focuses upon gaining understanding of a situation at a particular point in time,
recognizing that this is only one of a number of possible understandings. Mostly used for cultural
practices. Postmodernism demands that researchers are sceptical about how they engage with the
world, the categories they deploy, the assumptions they make and the interpretation they impose.
Postcolonism and indigenous epistemologies
Postcolonialism offers an alternative historical explanation for many commonplace business
practices that have their origins in colonial structures. Because of globalization it is important to
understand some of globalizations less visible and more unsavoury facets. For example, Maori
epistemology starts from their inside knowledge and worldview. Queer theory for example is about
that people can’t be viewed collectively on the basis of one shared flaw.
Conclusion
Qualitative researchers are called upon to reflexively think through their own beliefs and how those
beliefs will have repercussions for our engagement with areas of interest. Ray and Mill argue that to
have credibility qualitative papers must address the following four areas;
1. The theoretical positioning of the researchers including motives, presuppositions and
personal history, which leads them towards and shapes a particular inquiry.
2. The congruence between methodology, reflecting the beliefs about knowledge that arise
from the philosophical framework being employed, and the methods or tools of data
collection and analysis.
3. Strategies to establish rigour- in other words they must evaluate their research in a way that
is philosophically and methodologically congruent with their enquiry.
4. The analytical lens through which data are examined, in terms of the epistemological and
ontological assumptions researchers make in engaging with their data.
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Epistemology & Ontology Where is the researcher in this?
Epistemology: study of criteria by which we know what does
(not) constitute warranted or scientific knowledge – when do
we call something ‘true’ or ‘false’?
Ontology: dealing with the essence of phenomena and the
nature of their existence: is it real or illusory?
Positivism
1920s Vienna Circle: Carnap, Wittgenstein
- ‘Science should focus on only directly observable
phenomena’ (eliminate all metaphysical entities,
implying ontological neutrality), privileging science
(physics) as a model for all other sciences)
- Theories should be tested, hypothetico-deductive
fashion by their confrontation with the facts neutrally
gathered from observable external world
Qualitative neo-positivism
• Theory-neutral observational language: it is possible
to neutrally apprehend the facts ‘out there’
• What is ‘out there’ is presumed to be independent of
the knower and accessible to the trained researcher
(if following correct procedures) Relativism
Thomas Kuhn: The structure of scientific revolutions -
Interpretivism historical/sociological analysis instead of normative approach
• Hermeneutics: (based on techniques used to interpret • Normal science establishes the working of a discipline
biblical works) the meaning of a part can only be within one framework
understood if it is related to the whole • Anomalies lead into crisis and revolution
• Hermeneutic circle (Heidegger): link between pre- • A new paradigm with new protagonists is established
understanding and understanding is made (no one Feyerabend, Latour, Postmodernists
comes to interpretation with an open mind) • Critique of the dominance of scientific concept of truth
• Ethnomethodology: builds on philosophy of • Relevance: unity of insight and impact
phenomenology to seek understanding and to • Both participants and researcher are subjects of the
interpret how individuals make sense of their research process
lifeworlds. • Emphasis on social process of scientific discovery
• More interested in how interpretative schemas are
put into practice and are accepted, altered or rejected Postmodernism/-structuralism
• Reality is an ongoing and skilful social • Focus on language, discourse and deconstruction
accomplishment • Postmodernism, totally against positivism: ‘any attempt to
• Examines social minute of happenings in acute detail develop a rational and generalizable basis to scientific
enquiry that explains the world from an objective
standpoint is flawed’
Critical theory • All knowledge is indeterminate: everything is relative to
• The inherent connection between politics, values and the eye of the beholder
knowledge, provoking deeper consideration of the • Renewed focus on language, which is considered to never
politics and values underpinning/legitimizing the be innocent – no meaning exists beyond language;
authority of scientific knowledge; • How we make sense is driven by historical, contextual,
• Aims to understand how practices and institutions of social contingent discourses – forming ‘hyper-realities’
management are developed and legitimized within • Constant deconstructions of texts/truths: inconvenient
relations of power (capitalism) truth that there is no truth!
• the researcher is no longer the neutral observer
• Legitimate knowledge is grounded in consensus, Post colonialism/indigenous epistemologies
agreements result from argument and analysis • Offers alternative historical explanation for commonplace
without resort to coercion and distortion business practices that have their origins in colonial
• A call for reflexivity from the researcher (see last structures
lecture and Chapter 5 of book) • Queer theory: identities consist of many different
• Gender in Organisations elements, therefore: assuming that people can be viewed
collectively based on one characteristic (gender) is flawed
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Chapter 12 Assessing qualitative research
Introduction
Many authors have argued that qualitative research cannot be assessed as the same criteria as
quantitative research, because how they execute the research is different. Tracy gives us three
reasons to develop specific assessment criteria for qualitative research;
1. Pedagogical – guidelines will help us to learn how to do something.
2. Developmental – guidelines encourages researchers to debate and to learn from each other.
3. Political – A common language will tell if something is of good quality or not.
Assessment criteria for Qualitative research
Universal criteria
The best-known list is made by Guba and Lincoln. Their motivation came from a recognition that
positivist criteria were inappropriate for qualitative research.
Credibility – Researcher tries to demonstrate a
good fit between constructed realities of
respondents and the reconstructions attributed to
them.
Transferability – The researcher provides enough
detail about the specific research case that the
reader can judge what other contexts might be
informed by the findings.
Dependability – demonstrate how methodological changes and shifts in constructions have been
captured and made available for evaluation.
Confirmability – seeks to make clear where the data came from and how the data was transformed
into the presented findings.
Criticism about the above criteria by Lincoln and Guba themselves; The criteria is limited, because
they focus too much on methods as the mean by which quality can be ensured. After their own
critique they developed an alternative criterion also called authenticity criteria. The eight standards
for qualitative research (Lincoln 1995)
1. The standard set by the relevant inquiry community
2. The standard of positionality, wherein the stance of the researcher is explicitly acknowledged
3. The standard of community, wherein the research addresses and serves the community in
which it was carried out.
4. The standard of voice, wherein the research give voice to the participants, including multiple
of conflicting views.
5. The standard of critical subjectivity, wherein the researcher engages in reflexivity and seeks
self-transformation through the research.
6. The standard of reciprocity, wherein there is mutuality between the researcher and the
research participants.
7. The standard of relationship, wherein the research respects the collaboratives of the
research.
8. The standard of sharing, wherein the researcher shares the rewards of the research with the
participants.
These criteria show more of a concern with the nature of the relationship with the research
participants and ethical considerations than the previous list.
