SKILLED INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION – OWEN
HARGIE
CHAPTER 4: THE SKILL OF REINFORCING................................................................................................2
CHAPTER 5: THE SKILL OF QUESTIONING..............................................................................................11
CHAPTER 6: THE SKILL OF REFLECTING................................................................................................17
CHAPTER 7: THE SKILL OF LISTENING.....................................................................................................20
CHAPTER 8: THE SKILL OF EXPLAINING.................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 9: THE SKILL OF SELF-DISCLOSURE.....................................................................................33
CHAPTER 10: THE SKILLS OF SET INDUCTION AND CLOSURE.........................................................40
CHAPTER 11: THE SKILL OF ASSERTIVENESS........................................................................................48
CHAPTER 12: THE SKILL OF PERSUASION...............................................................................................53
CHAPTER 13: THE SKILL OF NEGOTIATING............................................................................................61
CHPATER 14: THE SKILLS OF PARTICIPATING IN AND LEADING SMALL GROUPS..................65
,CHAPTER 4: THE SKILL OF REINFORCING
Reinforcement is based on the simple Behaviour & its consequences
principle that whenever something
For any particular piece of behaviour there
reinforces a particular activity of an
are environmental stimuli that precede or
organism, it creates the chances that the
accompany it and other stimuli that follow
organism will repeat that behaviour. The
it. The relationship between a response and
fact that positive reactions can influence
its consequences may lead to that response
what we do, by making it more likely that
subsequently being:
we will engage in such behaviours in
preference to others, is central to the 1. Increased in frequency
concept of reinforcement as an 2. Decreased in frequency
interpersonal skill. The term ‘contingent’ 3. Left largely unchanged
in the reinforcement literature refers to a
direct linage between the behaviour and
the reinforcement – the reinforcer occurs - Punishment
as a causal consequence of the behaviour.
By contrast, the noncontingent This has the effect of surprising behaviour
reinforcement occurs when reinforcers are so that it is less likely that those acts
randomly given, regardless of the leading to the punishment will be repeated.
behaviour of the interlocutor. Positive punishment involves the
Reinforcement & professional practice introduction of something unpleasant ( a
noxious stimulus), such as a physical blow
A core skill common to professional or hurtful criticism, contingent upon the
practice in a range of settings involves appearance of the targeted behaviour.
responding positively to others so as to (interrupting, frowning)
reward and reinforce appropriately.
Negative punishment involves
When teachers use positive feedback at withdrawing some benefit that, had the
increased rates, a number of benefits arise, individual not acted that way, would have
including improvements in student continued to be enjoyed. (no eye contact,
achievement, engagement and behaviour. removing privileges)
Based on the premise that people will only A number of undesirable side-effects have
talk about what others are prepared to been associated with punishment. It can
listen to, clients can be encouraged to produce negative emotional reactions such
discloser issues of concern through the as fear and avoidance, which may
judicious use of attending behaviour and generalize beyond the response being
the reinforcing effects of selective listening punished to the punishing agent.
on the part of the counsellor or interviewer.
- Extinction
When actions previously reinforced cease
to produce customary outcomes that are
positively valued, the likely long-term
effect will also be a reduction in those
activities. This occurs through the
phenomenon of extinction.
, - Positive reinforcement machine that consistently fails to
deliver a soft drink)
If someone in a given situation does
- Reinforcement promotes
something that is followed immediately by
targeted behaviour
a positive reinforcer, then that person is
o Positive reinforcement;
more likely to do the same thing the next
involves the introduction of
time he or she encounter a similar
something pleasant
situation. Positive reinforcers take many
(receiving praise, chocolate,
forms, including a verbal or nonverbal
attention, money, playing a
reward, a material object, money, a
favourite game)
privilege or valued activity. (confirming,
o Negative reinforcement;
hmm hmm)
involves the removal of
- Negative reinforcement something undesirable
(stopping pain, boredom,
A response is associated with avoidance,
embarrassment, stress)
termination or reduction of an aversive
stimulus that would have either occurred or Categories of positive reinforcement
continued at some level had the response
- Primary reinforcers
not taken place. It is not the same as
punishment. In the case of punishment this These can be thought of as stimuli that are
state is made contingent on the occurrence inherently valued and the positive value
of the behaviour under focus and has the and reinforcing potential of which do not
effect of making that behaviour less likely rely upon a process of prior learning.
to recur. With negative reinforcement, the (Food, drink shelter, air, sex). These are
behaviour that results in the noxious things that we depend on for survival, due
stimulus being reduced, eliminated or to our biological make-up. They have
avoided will be probable in future. limitations as a direct means of influencing
(avoiding difficult topics) the complexities of everyday person-to-
person interaction, where the rewards tend
Consequences of behaviour
to be more subtle.
- Punishment suppresses targeted
- Conditioned reinforcers
behaviour
o Positive punishment; Also called secondary reinforcers. It
involves the introduction of includes events that have no intrinsic worth
something unpleasant but whose power to control behaviour is
(being scolded, slapped, ultimately derived from an earlier
made to feel uncomfortable) association with primary reinforcers. We
o Negative punishment; learn to value conditioned reinforcers.
involves the removal of (tokens, stickers, vouchers, medals,
something desired (tv stamps, badges, stars = token economics).
confiscated, credit card Under particular circumstances, an
withdrawn, car keys taken originally neutral stimulus can become
away) associated with a number of primary
- Extinction eliminates targeted reinforcers. Money, to cite one example,
behaviour (you’ll stop putting a can be used to obtain food, drink, shelter…
coin in a particular dispending (generalised reinforcers)
, - Social reinforcers; stimuli whose - Activity reinforcers
reinforcing properties derive
The Premack principle proposes that
uniquely from the behaviour of
activities of low probability can be
other members of the same species
increased in likelihood if activities of high
o Social process rewards
probability are made contingent upon
These are an inherent part of them.
interpersonal contact and
Stimulus control
include, in order of increasing
potency, the mere presence of The probability of responding can be
others, attention from them and affected by the presence or absence of a
their conversational stimulus as well as by the response to
responsivity. Too much or too one’s behaviour. When a certain action
little of these activities can be only succeeds in eliciting reinforcement in
aversive; it is only at a notional the presence of particular accompanying
intermediate level that they stimuli, then that piece of behaviour is said
become reinforcing. to be under stimulus control and those
stimuli have become discriminative stimuli
o Social content rewards
in respect of it. They signal the availability
What takes place within of a reinforcer for behaving in that way.
interaction also has rewarding When the overall context acts in this way,
ramifications. The acts of then contextual control is in operation.
showing deference, praising, Discriminative stimuli signal the occasion
extending sympathy and for particular behaviours to be reinforced
expressing approval, and must not be confused with reinforcing
confirmation or affection. It stimuli. The latter always function as a
presuppose a certain type of consequence of the targeted behaviour.
interpersonal relationship to be
Vicarious reinforces
relevant and effective.
It is the process whereby individual are
o Generalised reinforcers
more likely to adopt particular behaviours
Positive social reactions can be if they see other being rewarded for
used to shape interpersonal engaging in them. Through observing the
behaviour because they serve as actions of others we learn not only what to
generalised reinforcers. The do, but how to do it; we benefit from their
approval or attention of others successes. Rewards can influence learning,
are examples. motivation and emotions.
- Sensory reinforcers Two possible downsides:
We need think of the costs and 1. Praising in public can cause
inconveniences that devotees will endure embarrassment for some and so
to indulge themselves in these activities to may produce negative rather than
appreciate that certain quantities and positive effects
qualities of sensory stimulation can be 2. Watching others persistently
highly rewarding. rewarded for something that the
observer has done equally
competently, but without
