Samenvatting
Summary Developmental Psychopathology
- Instelling
- Universiteit Utrecht (UU)
Dit is een samenvatting van het tweedejaars vak Developmental Psychopathology. Het is een Engelse samenvatting en bevat chapter 1 t/m 14.
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11 DP T Samenvatting
Chapter 1: Introduction to Norma land Abnormal Behavior in Children and
Adolescents
General
Abnormal child psychology seeks to define what normal and abnormal behavior is for children of a
certain age, identify the causes of abnormal behavior, make predictions on the long term outcome of
that behavior and look for the best possible treatment.
Child disorders differ from adult disorders:
- Often the problem of parents
- Failure of expected developmental progress is seen as a disorder
- Many problems are normal for young children
- Interventions are based on the promotion of the development of the child and not at the restoration of
the failure that happened because of the disorder.
Disorders are behavioral patterns that differ from normal. The pattern of symptoms may cause
distress, impairment or not adaptation failure, which is not reaching developmental tasks, for the
individual. The disorders describe a pattern of behavior and not the person.
Stigma is a cluster of negative attitudes that may cause people to hide symptoms and not look for
help.
Developmental pathway: The sequence of events that leads to normal or abnormal development:
- Multifinality: A similar beginning may lead to various outcomes.
- Equifinality: Different beginnings may lead to the same outcome.
Resilience
The level of impairment (beperking) is influenced by the individual’s competence (bevoegdheid)
which is the ability to successfully adapt to the environment using internal and external resources and
resilience which is the sum of protective factors.
- Developmental competence: De mogelijkheid van een kind om met behulp van interne en externe
middelen zich succesvol aan te passen aan de omgeving.
- Developmental tasks: psychosociale taken van de kindertijd die een breed scala aan competenties
weerspiegelen en ons vertellen hoe kinderen vooruitgaan binnen elk van deze domeinen tijdens
het opgroeien.
o Infant: attachment to caregiver, language
o Middle childhood: self-control and compliance, getting along with peers
o Adolescence: academic achievement, forming close friendships within and across gender
Resilient boys are raised in households with a male role-model and enough rules. Girls are raised in
families with a female role-model and where risk-taking is encouraged.
History
In the past environmental factors were neglected when looking at children’s disorders and it was said
that is was merely because of biological deficits. This changes because of events in the 20 century:
th
- Freud’s psychoanalytic theory: Experiences play a role in the development of people in combination
with environmental factors.
- Behaviorism: The environment plays the greatest role in the development of children.
The new beliefs changes the way people think of children and started to see the importance of taking
care of environmental factors of children and their physical and mental health. This caused that
children were put into foster homes more because people realized that the environmental influences of
institutions were not good for the development of children.
, 2
Masturbatory insanity: The belief that masturbating was harmful to peoples mental and physical
health and that it was a sin to masturbate.
Prevalence
By 2020 behavioral health disorders will surpass all physical diseases as the major cause of disability
throughout the world.
1 in 8 children have mental health problems that influence functioning with fewer than 10% receiving
proper treatment.
3 in 5 children express symptoms of disorders.
There are some influences on prevalence:
- Gender: Boys show more externalizing problems with a decline over time whereas girls show more
internalizing problems with an increase over time. Boys report more problems in early life and girls
more in later life because problems are seen more in boys because they are externalizing.
- Race and ethnicity seem to make no difference when controlled for other factors
- Culture: Culture influences how people react to a child’s disorder. Biological disorders are less
susceptible for cultural influences.
Classification
Nosologies: The efforts to classify psychiatric disorders into descriptive categories.
We organize disorders and condition into three general categories:
- Neurodevelopmental disorders: Disorder start early in development with multiple outcomes and
often a chronic course, deficts are often chronic and affect children’s ability to learn or perform
normally. Intellectual disability, autism spectrum disorder, communication and learning disorder.
- Behavioral and emotional disorders: disruptive and conduct disorders (externalizing problems),
anxiety disorders (internalizing problems), trauma- and stressorrelated disorders.
- Physical and mental health: Medical conditions that influence psychological functioning and vice
versa, chronic illness, substance abuse, and eating disorders
We organize influences in the following categories:
- Biological influences: Caused at birth or behavior of environment that influence structure of the
brain.
- Emotional influences: manage emotions (happy, sad, anxiety, over-confident), relaties met
leeftijdsgenoten, gemeenschaps factoren en culturele verwachtingen
- Behavioral and cognitive influences: External behaviors or the way a person reacts or internalizes
behavioral influences.
- Family, culture and ethnic influences: early relationships with parents and relationships with
peers/teachers can give information. Children of with a minor cultural background are being
challenged to adapt to the major culture.
Acculturatie: Het kind of de adolescent heeft problemen bij het aanpassen aan de ontvangende cultuur
Biculturalisme: Het kind of de adolescent leert zich aan te passen aan zowel zijn afkomst als zijn
ontvangende cultuur
Chapter 2: Theories and causes
Etiology: The study of the causes of childhood disorders considering biological, psychological and
environmental processes that interact to produce the outcomes that are observed.
- Psyc and environmental models emphasize the role of enironmental toxins, early experiences,
learning opportunities, family systems, and sociocultural context (= risk factors)
Interpendent: how child and enivornment will influence each other, and are conntected (transaction)
Transaction: The interaction of nature and nurture.
, 3
Developmental cascades are interactions that cause changes in other systems and alter the
development like a chain reaction.
Continuity implies that developmental changes are gradual, quantitative and predictable based on
previous behaviors (weight and height changes. Behavior can be continuous but the expression doesn’t
have to be. This is seen in organization of development which states that early patterns of
development can evolve into higher order functions; successful adaptation leads to later successful
adaptation.
Discontinuity implies that development is abrupt, qualitative and can be poorly predicted.
Adaptional failure: failture to master or progress in accomplishing developmental milestones;
children with psychological disorders differ from children their own age some aspect of normal
development
Biological perspective
Brain and nervous system functions are underlying causes of psychological disorders. External factors
are seen as influences on the brains functioning.
Humans have 20,00 to 25,000 genes on 22 chromosomes which influence the behavior of people.
The brain
- Brain stem (hersenstam): Autonomic functions needed to stay alive; heartbeat, bloodpressure
- Hindbrain (achterste brein):
- Medulla
- Pons
- Cerebellum: Controls motor coordination
- Mid brain (middenhersenen): Motor activity with sensory input.
- Reticular activating system (RAS): Processes of arousal and tension (opwinding)
- Diencephalon: Connection between forebrain and the brain stem
- Thalamus and hypothalamus: Regulation of behavior and emotion
- Forebrain (voorhersenen): Making humans higher functioning organisms:
- Limbic system: Emotional experiences and expression. Plays an important role in learning
and impulse control. Also controls for basic drifts as sex, aggression and hunger. Also
contains hippocampus, cingulate gyrus, septum and amygdala.
- Basal ganalia: Caudate nucleus: Regulates and organizes emotion on cognition, emotion,
mood and motor functions and has been discovered to be related to ADHD and OCD.
- Cerebral cortex: Human qualities. Reasoning and creation. The frontal lobes underlie most
thinking and reasoning and also memory. It plays a great role in making sense of social
relationships and customs.
- Right hemisphere: Social perception and creativity.
- Left hemisphere: Verbal control and other cognitive processes.
Development of the brain
Brain development is an organized and hierarchical process. From the most reflexive (body
temperature, regulation) to the most complex (abstract thought, attachment)
When the brain develops there is an overabundance of neurons and neural connections. Experiences
cause selective pruning: reducing the number of connections and shapes which differentiates the
brain.
Neural plasticity/malleability is the ability of the brain to change according to needs of the
environment.
, 4
Gene-environment interaction (GxE interaction) is when brain activity and structure is influenced
by environmental factors. This is done through epigenetic which is changing the gene activity due to
environmental factors, such as toxins, diet, stress.
Behavioral genetics look the possible connection between genetics and behavior and molecular
genetics look at the interaction between DNA sequences and variations in particular traits.
Hormones and neurotransmitters
The endocrine system is the system consisting of several hormonal glands.
- Aderal glands (Kidneys) produces epinephrine also known as adrenaline in response to stress.
- Thyroid gland (Schildklier) produces thyroxine involves in growth and metabolism which is
involved in eating disorders.
- Pituitary gland (hypofyse): Orchestrates the body by releasing several hormones including
testosterone and estrogen.
The hypothalamic-pituitary-aderal axis (HPA-axis) is a regulatory system responsible for different
functions and associated with different psychological disorders.
Brain circuits are clustered neurons that are more sensitive to a certain neurotransmitter.
Neurotransmitter influence the likeability of showing certain behavior of people.
- Benzodiazepine-GABA: Lessens excitement and inhibits emotional response and associated with
fear. Plays a role in anxiety disorders.
- Norepinephrine: Alarm reactions and emotion and behavior regulation.
- Dopamine: act as a switch that turns on various brain circuits, involved in exploratory, extroverted
and pleasure-seeking activity
- Serotonin: plays a role in information and motor coordination, moderates and regulates a number of
behaviors, eating, sleeping and expressing anger
Psychological perspective
Emotion
In psychological basis the focus is on the emotion of children and infants because they use emotion to
organize information and avoid potential harm.
Emotions help humans to survive and to see what is important and what is not. Children have the
natural tendency to attend to emotional cues from others, which helps them learn to interpret and
regulate their emotions.
Emotion reactivity: Differences in reactivity to emotional cues. Which provide clues to an
individual’s level of distress and sensitivity to the environment
Problems in emotion regulation can be divided into:
- Regulation: Weak or absent control of ones emotions and impulses.
- Dysregulation: And existing control system works incorrectly, reactions are extreme or not sensitive
enough. This can be helpful in situations such as numbing.
Self-regulation is the balance between personal needs and self-control. An impulsive child needs high
self-control but some children don’t.
Temperament
Temperament is the pattern in which a child behaves normally in the early years of life. It is seen as
early self-regulatory style and personality.
1. Positive affect and approach: also described as ‘easy child’. The child approaches his/hers
environment in an open and positive way and has almost no problem with learning basic functioning
and control as eating or sleeping.
2. Fearful or inhibited: also described as ‘slow-to-warm-up child’. These children are often fearful or
detached from new situations or experiences. They are variable in self-regulation but can often be
negative towards some situations.
3. Negative affect or irritability: also describes as ‘difficult child’. Generally negative and intense in
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