APPROACHES TO PSYCHOLOGY
H1: BEHAVIOR AND PSYCHOLOGY
INTRODUCTION
Phrenology = a now-discredited eighteenth-century theory which asserted
that one could assess ability by examining the shape of the skull
Psychology = the scientific study of behavior and experience
Some psychologists would interpret ‘behavior’ to mean both overt
responses and conscious experience, that is, actions and thoughts or
feelings
o While others would be more restrictive, omitting thoughts and
feelings because they cannot be directly observed
Some psychologists include the behavior of other species
Despite such variations in the focus of interests, the methods
used in psychology are scientific
o These methods, which involve both how observations are
made and how theories are assessed, are primarily based on a
tradition which originated with the natural sciences of physics,
chemistry, and biology
The challenge of psychology
Psychological researchers face four particular challenges which are unique
to their discipline:
- Complexity = a characteristic of systems composed of large
numbers of interacting units (such as neurons in the brain), resulting
in new patterns or phenomena not found in individual units
o EX studying language is complicated because there are
several thousand languages and dialects known, each with its
own vocabulary and grammar
o Given the richness of human behavior, psychologists must
contend with a vast range of possibilities, and a
correspondingly large variety of data (observations)
- Self-awareness = the capacity for individuals or other living
organisms to consciously observe their own behavior
o Psychologists studying human behavior are simultaneously
producing human behavior
o Prone to many sources of error, not the least of which is bias
Researchers, like other people, may misinterpret their
own behavior to fit their theoretical ideas
- Reactivity = the tendency for people to alter their behavior when
they are being observed
o Psychologists often resort to complicated research designs,
sometimes including deliberate deception to increase the
chances of people behaving naturally
- Causality = the study of how actions or events produce (cause) a
particular outcome
o BUT reality is many different factors can influence behavior
in a given situation
,WHY DIFFERENT APPROACHES?
Number of different approaches which differ from each other in terms of
their basic assumptions, their methods and their theoretical structures
Each approach represents a distinct framework for the study of
behavior
In some cases, theorists do react against what they see as
limitations or errors in the work of others
The complexity of behavior means that currently no single theory can
effectively explain all aspects
The nature of theory formation in science means that different
approaches developed in response to that complexity
o BUT ALSO as a result of personal and cultural factors
Perception and experience
Perception = the process of selection, organization, and interpretation of
information about the world conveyed by the senses
Active process
The idea that we see things simply as they are is sometimes called
‘naive realism’
First process of selection selective attention = the perceptual process of
selectively focusing on particular stimulus elements
EX the way we focus on one conversation, while filtering out other
voices and sounds, at a crowded location
Perception partly determined by the external stimuli that we encounter, as
filtered by selective attention
THIS stimulus-based process is sometimes called ‘bottom-up’
processing
Perceptual experience is also influenced by various internal factors,
such as our prior experience and expectations (‘top-down’
processing)
o Influence both the way that we interpret selected stimuli, and
also what we select
Past experience influences the processing order
The context of the stimuli leads us to interpret the same elements
differently
Ambiguous figures = a picture or other visual stimulus which can be
perceived in more than one way
Illustrate that what we perceive is not based simply on what is ‘out
there’, but is also influenced by internal processes
Underscore the processes which are part of all perception
Gestalt theory = a theory of behavior pioneered in the early part of the
twentieth century by Kohler, Wertheimer, and others, which emphasized
the active, creative nature of perception and learning
, (Gestalt is German, and means roughly ‘organized whole’)
Researchers found that we tend to group similar objects together
o Principle of similarity = a Gestalt principle of perceptual
organization, based on grouping together similar elements (for
example, shape or size)
AND principle of proximity = a Gestalt principle which states that
elements which are close together tend to be perceived as a group
AND closure = in perception, the tendency to fill in incomplete
patterns to produce a coherent whole
o Helps to explain why tasks like proofreading can be difficult
Schema (pl. schemata) = a mental framework which organizes knowledge,
beliefs, and expectations, and is used to guide behavior
Some are scripts to guide our actions in particular situations
Can also be used to organize our knowledge of objects and people
Influence the way we perceive the world around us
Stereotype = an oversimplified and often inaccurate perception of
an individual based on generalizing from schemata related to the
individual’s group membership
o OFTEN formed initially from some specific experience, or from
observations
o WHEN this information is generalized to apply to all members
of the group, regardless of circumstances
o Can lead us to prejudge others risk of distorting reality
Part of our perceptual process
Confirmation bias = a form of cognitive error based on the tendency
to seek out information which supports one’s beliefs, and to ignore
contradictory information
By understanding the perceptual process, we are more likely to
avoid the kinds of errors we have discussed
Perception and theorizing
Researchers make choices, focusing on one aspect or type of behavior, or
sometimes one species
Choice may reflect the researcher’s interests, theoretical
assumptions, or other aspects of the individual’s schemata
Process of deciding what to study, and how to study it, is influenced
by the processes of perception which we have been discussing
Psychology 5 major approaches
Biological, behaviorist, cognitive, psychodynamic, and humanistic
Complementarity = a concept developed by physicists to deal with the
existence of two models which are both useful, but not directly
reconcilable
Each representation has value, without implying that one is right and
the other is wrong in an absolute sense
How useful each approach is
, Each approach to psychology may be only a partial view of the
whole subject
The impact of culture is a broad issue have developed different types of
frameworks and explanations
THE ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Psychology (since 19th century) involved in a number of elements
BUT origins of psychology go back even further
Emerged out of two traditions philosophy and natural science
Two great pioneers: Wilhelm Wundt and William James
o Their contributions laid the foundation for most of modern
psychology
o Each played a major role in shaping the direction of
psychology as a discipline
o Functionalism = an approach to the study of behavior
pioneered by William James, which emphasizes the analysis of
the processes by which the mind works
o Structuralism = an approach to psychology pioneered by
Wundt which attempted to analyze the contents of the mind,
using the introspectionist method
Two crucial aspects of modern psychology
o The importance of making careful observation
o The importance of asking the proper questions
Psychology is clearly not the measure of all things
o BUT it is perhaps fitting that the study of human behavior
should have links extending into all the domains of human
knowledge, from the natural sciences to the humanities
METHODS OF STUDYING BEHAVIOR
The role of the scientific method in psychology
Psychology is empirical = based on making observations, as in an
empirical theory
Common emphasis on objective observation psychology is a
public endeavor, which cannot depend on secret knowledge or
mystic inspiration
Scientific observations one must classify those observations in
some way
o Science depends on organized observation
Theory = a structured set of principles intended to explain a set of
phenomena
Provides a coherent structure for relating various observations
Often permits prediction of future observations
Theories in science have explained observed events by identifying
their causes
Provides a way of generalizing across specific observations
Observations and theory are connected by two basic cognitive processes:
