Samenvatting

Summary Premaster Fall: Meth., Meas. and Stat

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Samenvatting van alle lectures aangevuld met het boek voor zowel het vak methods & measurements als statistics. Premaster Fall: Meth., Meas. and Stat

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Geupload op 6 november 2023
Aantal pagina's 47
Geschreven in 2023/2024
Type Samenvatting

elaboration
quantitative
qualitative
statistics
methods
measurements
hypothesis
hypotheses
null hypotheses
hypothesis testing
sampling
random sample
stratified
conceptual models
multivariate h
pearson

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METHODS & MEASUREMENTS
Topics covered in the methods/measurement part of the course:
1. Cornerstones of social research
2. Concepts, variables & their relationship
3. Unit of analysis and nested data – logical fallacies
4. Principles of sampling
5. Survey research and survey instruments
6. Measurement: operationalizing, validity and reliability
7. Measurement: factor analysis
LECTURE 1
1. CORNERSTONES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH
Quantitative research questions:
 Descriptive questions: “What is the average number of days of sick leave per year
due to burn-out?”
o Doel is om gegevens samen te vatten
 Explanatory questions: “To what extent does the average number of days of sick
leave due to burn-out across sectors of employment
o Doel is om aan te geven waarom iets gebeurt or dingen zich voordoen.
 Establishing generalizations that apply to everyone; aim to make generalizations.
 Focus on nomothetic ‘causal’ relationships (predicting the outcome variable)
Qualitative research questions:
 Questions about lived personal experience, understanding and meaning of stories:
“How did employees who suffered from burn-out last year link this to personal
experiences at work before and after their burn-out?”
 You need to ask the question to individuals to give an answer on the question
 You’re interested in each individual
 It is about explaining
 Focus on ideographic relationships (rather than on nomothetic ‘causal’
relationships)

Examples:
Quantitative Qualitative

Do positive experiences with refugees increase a How do people with different experiences in their
person's tolerance towards a new refugee centre in the contact with refugees understand how it affects their
neighborhood? feelings towards the opening of a new refugee centre in
the neighborhood?

To what extent do childhood experiences regarding the What is the experience of outing as LGBTQ in a situation
quality of the relationship of parents impact on gender in which one is the first to out within the family as
identification amongst LGBTQ community? compared to when a relative already outed as LGBTQ
before one did?

Does autocratic leadership of the direct supervisor What does autocratic leadership of a direct supervisor
decrease the work performance and motivation of mean to employees in terms of their motivation and
employees? performance at work?

,THEORY(-IES) <- PROPOSITIONS -> HYPOTHESES
Proposition: general statement regarding a regularity in the behavior or opinion of
subjects.
 The general statement is not specific enough to do the research  the WHY
question = theories
 This is the center to move to empirical research; going to hypothesis or back to
theories
 It’s not clear how you will do the research
Example: “When an individual manages a particular task well, then (s)he will perform that
task better in the presence of others than when nobody else is present.”
(= social facilitation effect SFE)

If the question is why is this the case?  theory
 Theory: provides an explanation for a proposition or set of propositions ≠
speculation!
Example: alternative theories for the SFE proposition: biological VS psychological
‘explanation’
o Biological: the presence of others activates physiological triggers
o Psychological: people perform better when they believe they are being
watched/evaluated.
= nature versus nurture debate in many social and behavioral sciences

If the question is how can we research that?  applying it in a concrete situation 
hypotheses
 Hypotheses: example athletics will perform better;
o The more spectators there are;
o the more journalists there are that will comment on their performances;
o when there is direct coverage of the event by the media (television,…).
 From an empirical point of view you want to collect data to verify or research the
proposition.
o You need data to say something about the hypotheses
o You can use existing data, make some correlations about a hypotheses

SCIENCE AS A PROCESS: INDUCTION – DEDUCTION

theories deduction

empirical
hypotheses
generalisations

induction observations

Observations  analyses  empirical generalizations  these confirm theories or not
 Induction: starts from observations to hypotheses – we will focus on this
 Deduction: starts with theories to generalizations – in the workfield we will focus
on this

,2. CONCEPTS, VARIABLES AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP
Concepts (or constructs): general/abstract description of a social phenomenon.
 You have some ideas about it but have to specify it to measure it  transform into
variable
o E.g. ethnocentrism
Variable: empirical manifestation of a concept
 E.g. a scale that measures ethnocentrism
Hypotheses: an expected relationship between 2 or more variables that can be
researched
 E.g. women are on average less ethnocentric than men
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
Bivariate hypotheses: expected relationship between 2 variables (=total effect)
Diagram:
X Y
Legend:
X = independent variable (‘cause’)
Y = dependent variables (‘outcome’)
= direction of effect (from independent on dependent)
Example:
“The higher the emotional intelligence of a person, the higher the amount of money
a person gives to good causes.”
à Wording reflects metric measurement (scale)
“The higher the emotional intelligence of a person the higher the likelihood of
becoming depressed.”
à Dependent = categorical (non-metric); independent = metric

The kind of variables influences the measurements for the research and the kind of
hypothesis it is:
 Distinction between metric VS non-metric refers to ‘measurement level’ of a
variable
 Formulation of hypothesis should be consistent with this distinction

Multivariate hypothesis: expected relationship between a dependent variable (Y) and
multiple independent variables (X)
Types of multivariate hypothesis:
a. Relative importance of b. Mediation (interpretation of an
effects effect
X1 ++ X1

Y + Y

X2 + X2 +

c. Moderation (conditional effect) d. Spurious effect (explanation of
X1 an effect)
+ X1
+ Y + Y
+
X2 X2
++ = a stronger relationship, so more important

, + = less stronger
- = negative relationship; decreases the outcome for Y

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