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Social Environment & Behaviour - A Summary 2021/2022 [PSBE2-04]
A summary for the course Social Environment & Behaviour 2021/2022. This summary encompasses chapters 1 - 17.
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Notes 1Social Environment & Behaviour
Notes from the Book
Steg L., Keizer K., Buunk A.P., Rothengatter T. - Applied Social
Psychology: Understanding and Managing Social Problems
1. Introduction to applied social psychology
Many, if not most, societal problems are rooted in behaviour or human cognitions.
Social psychology is the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes of human
behaviour and thought in social situations and the motivations, cognitions, and emotions related to such
behaviours. This includes behaviour and thoughts related to helping, attraction, conflict, prejudice,
self-esteem, group processes, and social exclusion.
First, in order to design effective solutions for social problems, we have to understand which behaviour
causes the given problem. Applied scientists can focus on behaviour that significantly contributes to a
social problem and where interventions would have the most impact in resolving these problems.
Second, it is important to examine which factors influence the particular behaviour. Behaviour-change
programmes will be more effective when they target important antecedents of behaviour. Thus, we need
to understand which factors cause behaviour.
Third, it is important to understand which intervention techniques are available to change behaviour,
taking into account which behavioural antecedents are typically targeted by various intervention
techniques.
Applied social psychology is the systematic application of social psychological constructs, principles,
theories, intervention techniques, research methods, and research findings to understand or ameliorate
social problems.
Constructs are the building blocks of psychological principles and theories. A construct refers to a clearly
defined individual (psychological) characteristic that is generally latent and thus not directly observable.
(e.g. attitudes, values, injunctive norms)
A principle is a statement of how a psychological process works. Principles describe basic processes by
which humans think, feel, and act. (e.g. cognitive dissonance, availability heuristic, foot-in-the-door
technique)
A theory is an integrated set of principles that describes, explains, and predicts observed events. Theories
provide explanations for our observations and enable us to predict future events. A theory integrates
various principles. Theories are not facts or laws; the tenability of theories should be tested in practice.
,Notes 2
Basic and applied social psychology differ in two important respects. First, basic social psychologists are
particularly interested in developing and testing theories while applied social psychologists focus on
understanding and resolving practical problems. Second, basic social psychologists tend to follow a
deductive approach. They start with a particular theory, and examine to what extent the theory may be
helpful in understanding various types of social behaviour. In contrast, applied social psychologists tend
to follow an inductive approach. They start from a specific social problem, and examine to what extent
various theories may help to understand this specific problem and which theory provides the best
explanation of the behaviour causing the problems.
Basic as well as applied social psychologists are interested in testing theories, although it is generally not
the primary interest of applied social psychologists. In fact, valid theories are very useful in solving
problems. As such, theories provide ideas that guide our research and provide a direction that may yield
solutions for social problems. Theories are very helpful in understanding and interpreting results of
research. They help us to understand why and how things are related, and to identify where further
research is needed. Theories help us to develop interventions as well, by specifying variables or
conditions that must be controlled or changed in order to reach our goals.
Theories do not only help applied social psychologists in carrying out their work. Applied social
psychology can also contribute fruitfully to basic psychological principles, theories, and intervention
techniques. Results of applied research may necessitate adjustment of theories, or the development of new
theories.
Both basic and applied social psychology are sciences. The term science refers to reliance on scientific
methods; and guidance by the core values of science.
Scientific methods are those methods that depend on empirical tests, that is, the use of systematic
observations to evaluate propositions and ideas. A core set of values should be adopted to qualify a study
as scientific in nature. Four of these values are most important (Baron and Byrne, 2004).
❖ Accuracy; gather and evaluate information that is as carefully examined, precise, and as error free
as possible.
❖ Objectivity; minimize bias in obtaining and evaluating data.
❖ Skepticism; accept findings as accurate only to the extent that they have been verified over and
over again by the data.
❖ Open-mindedness; accept evidence as valid, even if the evidence is not consistent with one’s
initial, and perhaps strongly held beliefs and theories.
Another similarity between basic and applied social psychologists is that both are motivated by four main
goals of science: description, prediction, causality, and explanation.
Description refers to identifying and specifying the details and nature of a phenomenon.
Prediction enhances understanding of phenomena. Prediction requires knowing what factors are
systematically related to the phenomenon of interest.
, Notes 3
Identifying causes of a phenomenon is another important component of understanding: we need to
determine causality.
A final component of understanding is explanation. Explanation implies the need to establish why a
phenomenon or relationship occurs.
In general, social psychologists take into account individual, social, situational, cultural, and biological
factors, as well as interactions between these factors.
Individual factors refer to intrapersonal characteristics and processes. Individual differences may exist in
cognitive processes, emotions, and in the extent to which people engage in behaviour.
Social factors pertain to the effect of the opinions and actions of other people on our behaviour, thoughts,
and feelings. The behaviour of individuals is strongly affected by social situations.
Situational factors reflect contextual factors that may affect our behaviour and thoughts. The physical
world may strongly affect our behaviour, thoughts, and feelings.
Cultural factors refer to cultural values or norms that affect cognitions, feelings, and behaviour. Culture
may be defined as the system of shared meanings, perceptions, and beliefs held by people belonging to a
particular group.
Biological factors pertain to the effect of biological processes and genetic factors on our behaviour,
feelings and thoughts. Evolutionary psychology suggests that we possess a large number of evolved
psychological mechanisms that help us survive and reproduce.
Although values influence which topics are being studied by applied social psychologists, they should not
affect the methods used to study them.
The theory of normative conduct contends that behaviour is influenced by injunctive norms as well as
descriptive norms. The more salient a particular norm, the stronger it influences the relevant behaviour.
As another example, theories on stereotyping are relevant when trying to understand discrimination
against women or minority groups. Similarly, some intervention techniques may be more appropriate in a
given problem situation than others.
Many societal problems are rooted in a wide range of factors, which are not solely social-psychological
by nature. Economic, sociological, political and/or organizational factors may play an important role. This
necessitates social psychologists being informed on and aware of the research contributions and
knowledge bases of other scientific disciplines.
Ultimately, applied social psychology aims to understand and solve social problems of different kinds and
to increase quality of life, as will become apparent in the second part of this book. It is assumed that
social problems may be reduced by changing people’s attitudes, norms, values, perceptions, behaviours,
and lifestyles. This is the core subject of the field of social psychology. Thus, knowledge and methods of
social psychology can be highly useful in achieving social goals.
2. The use of theory in applied social psychology
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