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Social Environment and Behaviour | The Book
Chapter 1 | Introduction to Applied Social Psychology
Social psychology is the scientific field that seeks to understand the nature and causes
of human behaviour and thought in social situations, and the motivations, cognitions, and
emotions related to such behaviours.
First, in order to design effective solutions for social problems, we have to understand
which behaviour causes the given problem. Applied scientists can best focus on behaviour
that significantly contributes to a social problem and where interventions would have the most
impact in resolving these problems. Second, it is important to examine which factors
influence the particular behaviour. Behaviour-change programmes will be more effective
when they target important antecedents of behaviour. Thus, we need to understand which
factors cause behaviour. Third, it is important to understand which intervention techniques are
available to change behaviour, taking into account which behavioural antecedents are
typically targeted by various intervention techniques.
In sum, applied scientists should focus their efforts on aspects of a social problem
where they would have the most impact in improving the relevant problems.
Definition of Applied Social Psychology
Applied social psychology is the systematic application of social psychological
constructs, principles, theories, intervention techniques, research methods, and research
findings to understand or ameliorate social problems. A construct refers to a clearly defined
individual (psychological) characteristic that is generally latent and thus not directly
observable, although it can be assessed through interviews or questionnaires. A principle is a
statement of how a psychological process works. Principles describe basic processes by which
humans think, feel, and act. Examples are:
• The foot-in-the-door technique.
• Cognitive dissonance.
• The availability heuristic.
A theory is an integrated set of principles that describes, explains, and predicts observed
events. Theories are not facts or laws; the tenability of theories should be tested in practice.
Basic and applied social psychology differ in two important respects. First, basic
social psychologists are particularly interested in developing and testing theories, while
applied social psychologists focus on understanding and resolving practical problems.
Second, basic social psychologists tend to follow a deductive approach. In contrast, applied
social psychologists tend to follow an inductive approach. They start from a specific social
problem, and examine to what extent various theories may help to understand this specific
problem, which theory provides the best explanation of the particular behaviour causing the
problems.
Correspondence between basic and applied; developing and testing theories
Theories provide coherent frameworks for understanding behaviour that causes social
problems. Both basic and applied social psychology are sciences. The term science refers to:
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1. reliance on scientific methods; and
2. guidance by the core values of science.
Scientific methods are those methods that depend on empirical tests, that is, the use of
systematic observations to evaluate propositions and ideas. A core set of values should be
adopted to qualify a study as scientific in nature. Four of these values are most important:
1. Accuracy: unreliable measures can lead to false conclusions of ‘no effect’.
2. Objectivity: minimize bias in obtaining and evaluating data.
3. Scepticism: accept findings as accurate only to the extent that they have been
verified over and again by the data.
4. Open-mindedness: accept evidence as valid, even if the evidence is not consistent
with one’s initial, and perhaps strongly held, beliefs and theories.
Some ethical precepts specifically concern social scientists, and refer to the way research
should be conducted. Some important concerns of precepts are:
- Deception: deception of clients or research participants should be avoided whenever
possible.
- Informed consent.
- Invasion of privacy.
- Debriefing.
Goals of science
Another similarity between basic and applied social psychologists is that both are
motivated by four main goals of science: description, prediction, causality, and explanation.
Description refers to identifying and specifying the details and nature of a phenomenon.
Prediction enhances understanding of phenomena. Thus, identifying causes of a phenomenon
is another important component of understanding: we need to determine causality. A final
component of understanding is explanation. Explanation implies the need to establish why a
phenomenon or relationship occurs.
Causes of behaviour and cognitions
In general, social psychologists take into account individual, social, situational,
cultural, and biological factors, as well as interactions between these factors.
Individual factors refer to intrapersonal characteristics and processes. Social factors
pertain to the effect of the opinions and actions of other people on our behaviour, thoughts,
and feelings. Situational factors reflect contextual factors that may affect our behaviour and
thoughts. Cultural factors refer to cultural values or norms that affect cognitions, feelings,
and behaviour. Cultural factors refer to cultural values or norms that affect cognitions,
feelings, and behaviour. Biological factors pertain to the effect of biological processes and
genetic factors on our behaviour, feelings, and thoughts.
Features of applied social psychology
One obvious role of applied social psychologists is to conduct applied research.
Second, they may evaluate the effects of interventions on cognitions and behaviour. Third,
applied social psychologists can evaluate the effects of interventions on social problems and
individual quality of life; that is, did changes in cognitions and/or behaviour indeed resolve
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social problems, and did overall quality of life improve, as expected? In the role of consultant,
applied social psychologists assist individuals, groups, organizations, or communities to
resolve particular problems they are facing.
Chapter 2 | The use of theory in applied social psychology
The primary functions of theory in applied social psychology are understanding (U),
solution (S), and evaluation (E). For applied social psychologists, theories are the primary tool
for understanding and solving social problems. Theories are the starting point for creating an
intervention. In applied work, theories are useful in three ways. First, theories provide
explanations for human behaviour. In some instances, theories are found to be wrong, and
more accurate theories are proposed as alternatives. Let us look at a theory that is known in
the scientific community to be severely limited. The knowledge-deficit model of behaviour
change posits that social programmes (like public transportation) are underutilized because
individuals lack knowledge about the programme or the behaviour. A second use of theories is
to suggest ways to change problematic behaviour and work towards solving aspects of the
problem. Finally, in an applied setting, theories can become ‘practical’ and guide evaluation.
If the social psychologist is following an action research model, the cycle would begin
again with the researcher reanalysing the situation, refining the intervention, implementing it
and then reassessing the situation and the relevance of the theories used.
Thus, theories have three major roles in applied social psychology: (1) they help make
sense of social behaviour (understand); (2) they guide and inform the development of
interventions intended to address a social problem (solve); and (3) they can be tested for
practicality and usefulness in the real world (evaluate).
Theories, principles and constructs
The behaviour of interest is an individual’s decision to drive their own car, rather than
take public transport to work. One theoretical perspective that might explain this behaviour is
rational choice theory. Essentially, this theory maintains that individuals are motivated to
promote their self-interests. The theory contains a number of constructs – most notably costs
and rewards.
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Social thinking Social influence Social
relationships
Focus of theories To describe how To describe how the To describe what
people appraise social environment makes people relate
themselves and their changes an to each other
social world individual’s positively and
thoughts, feelings negatively
and/or behaviours
Types of theories Attributions, cognitive Obedience, Ingroup/outgroup
dissonance theory, compliance, biases, stereotypes,
attitudes, Theory of elaboration prejudice,
Planned Behaviour likelihood model discrimination,
contact theory,
prosocial behaviour
Application of To design tools or To design To design
theories interventions that interventions that interventions that
describe, predict, or promote specific improve social
change social behaviours relationships
appraisals
Social thinking
Theories regarding social thinking typically describe how people appraise themselves
and their social world. These theories describe ways we gather, organize, and interpret social
information. From this area of study we have theories regarding attributions, attitudes, self-
concepts, and schemas. In the social-psychological literature, researchers sometimes refer to
this area of theory as social cognition.
An early social cognitive theory was attribution theory, which originated in the
writings of Fritz Heider (1958). The basic principle that governs attribution theory is that
people explain behaviour – both their own and that of other people. Findings from attribution
theory were that individuals from Western cultures typically attribute their own poor
behaviour to external causes, and the poor behaviour of others to internal causes. The opposite
attribution pattern can occur when explaining good behaviour. This basic tendency is known
as the fundamental attribution error.
Festinger’s (1957) cognitive dissonance theory suggests that it is psychologically
uncomfortable when people’s attitudes, beliefs, and behaviour about themselves or their
surroundings are not congruent.
A final social psychological theory related to attitudes and social thinking is the
Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) that emerged as a framework for understanding the
relationship between attitudes and behaviours. The TPB attempts to clarify the generally weak
relationship between attitudes and behaviours. According to this theory, the best predictor of
an individual’s behaviour is their intention to act, which in turn is caused by three constructs:
- Attitude
- Subjective norms
- Perceived behavioural control
