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Samenvatting Inleiding in de Psychologie, literatuur (foundations and frontiers psychology) + hoorcolleges (eigen cijfer 8)

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Universiteit Leiden (UL)

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Psychology

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Psychologie: wetenschap dat zich bezighoudt met menselijk gedrag/ mentale processen.
Ontwikkelingspsychologie: bestudeert hoe en waarom gedrag en mentale processen veranderen
gedurende de levenscyclus van een mens, en wat de gevolgen daarvan zijn.
Onderwijspsychologie: bestudeert hoe mensen leren en hoe onderwijs het beste vormgegeven kan
worden.
Cognitieve psychologie: bestudeert mentale processen zoals perceptie, geheugen, leren, denken,
bewustzijn, intelligentie ect.
Klinische (and counseling) psychologie: bestudeert de oorzaken, gevolgen en behandelingen van
psychische stoornissen.
Gezondheidspsychologie: bestudeert hoe gedrag en mentale processen de lichamelijke gezondheid kunnen
beïnvloeden, en andersom.
Persoonlijkheidspsychologie: bestudeert de stabiele karaktereigenschappen van personen en hoe die
samenhangen met bv psychische problemen. (Temperament)
Sociale psychologie: bestudeert hoe mensen elkaars gedrag en mentale processen beïnvloeden, individueel
en in groepen.
Bio- en neuropsychologie: bestudeert hoe het brein en processen in ons lichaam ons gedrag en mentale
processen beïnvloeden, en andersom.
Organisatiepsychologie: bestudeert hoe de efficiëntie, productiviteit en tevredenheid van werknemers en
werkgevers vergoot kan worden.
Developmental Psychology: describe how behavior and mental processes change from birth through old
age and try to understand the causes and effects of those changes
Community psychology: work to obtain psychological services for people in need of help and to prevent
psychological disorders by working for changes in social systems.
Quantitative psychology: develop and use statistical tools to analyze research data.
Sports psychology: explore the relationships between athletic performance and such psychological
variables as motivation and emotion
Forensic psychology: assist in jury selection, evaluate defendants' mental competence to stand trial, and
deal with other issues involving psychology and the law.
Environmental psychology: study the effects of the physical environment on behavior and mental
processes.

Literatuur 1 (hoofdstuk 1, introducing psychology)
❖ Psychology relies on the results of scientific research.
❖ Empiricism challenged the claim that we are born with knowledge about the world -> we get them
form experience and observation instead.
o The philosophical views known as empiricism was very important to the development of
scientific psychology.
❖ The official birth date of modern psychology is said to be 1879 -> the year that Wilhelm Wundt
established the first formal psychology research.
❖ Consciousness: the awareness of external stimuli and our own mental activity
❖ Functionalism: focused on the role of consciousness in guiding peoples ability to make decisions
❖ Watsons view (behaviorism) recognized that consciousness exists, but it did not consider it worth
studying because it would always be private and therefore not observable by scientific methods.
❖ Culture: accumulation of values, rules of behavior, forms of expressions, religious beliefs,
occupational choices and the like for a group who share a common language and environment.
❖ Sociocultural factors: gender, ethnicity, social class, culture, age, religion.

Approaches
• Biological approach: behavior (disorder) is seen as the result of physical processes, especially those
related to the brain and to hormones and chemicals.

, • Psychodynamic approach: assumes that our behavior and mental processes reflect constant a
mostly unconscious psychological struggles deep within us (the interplay of unconsciousness
mental processes in determining human thought, feelings and behavior according to Freud)
• Behavioral approach: emphasizing that human behavior is determined mainly by what a person has
learned, especially from rewards and punishments.
• Evolutionary approach: assumes that the behavior and mental processes of humans/animals are
alse affected by evolution through natural selection. (emphasizes the inherited, adaptive aspects of
behavior and mental processes)
o Natural selection: the evolutionary mechanism through which Darwin said the fittest
individuals survive to reproduce.
• Cognitive approach: emphasizes research in how the brain takes in information, forms and retrieves
memories, processen information, and generates integrated patterns of actions.
• Humanistic approach: focuses on how each person has a unique capacity to choose how to think
and act.

Early advocates
• Edward Titchener (Wilhelm Wundt): structuralism -> studied the conscious experience and its
structure
• Max Wertheimer: gestalt psychology -> describes the organization of mental processes ´The whole
is different from the sum of its parts´
• Sigmund Freud: psychoanalysis -> explain personality and behavior, to develop techniques for
treating mental disorders
• William James: functionalism -> studied how the mind works in allowing an organism to adapt to
the environment
• John Watson and Skinner: behaviorism -> to study only observable behavior and explain behavior
through learning principles

Literatuur 2 (hoofdstuk 5, learning)
• Learning: permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience
o The modification of preexisting behavior and understanding
• Habituation: reduced responsiveness to a repeated stimulus (a sound or smell) (=Non associative)
• Sensation: increase in responsiveness to a stimulus (spooky house) (=Non associative)
• Escape conditioning: when we learn responses that stop an unpleasant stimulus. (mute tv)
• Avoidance conditioning: when we learn particular responses that avoid an unpleasant stimulus.
(apologize for bumping into someone when in a hurry)
• Discriminative conditioned stimuli: stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available of a
certain response is made (learn what is appropriate = reinforced -> no jokes at a wedding)
• Shaping: the reinforcement of responses that come successively closer to some desired response
(give a sugar before instead of after the paw)
• Primary reinforcers: stimuli that satisfy psychological needs basic to survival (food)
• Secondary reinforcers: rewards that people learn to like (a hug)
• Partial reinforcement effect: a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial
reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than those learned in a continuous
reinforcement schedule
• Positive reinforcement: presenting something pleasant
• Negative reinforcement: removing something unpleasant.
• Punishment: the presentation of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a pleasant one following
behavior
• Positive punishment: increasing discomfort (smashing your dog)
• Negative punishment: reducing pleasure (take the TV away from your child)

, • Learned helplessness: a tendency to give up on efforts to control the environment
• Latent learning: learning that has obviously occurred in the animal even though it was not evident
when it first took place (learning that is not demonstrated at the time it occurs -> rats in a maze)
• Cognitive map: a mental representation of the environment
• Insight: a sudden understanding of what is required to solve a problem
• Observational learning: learning how to perform new behaviors by watching others
• Counterconditioning (systematic desensitization): conditioneren om niet meer bang voor iets te
zijn.
• Wat te leren van Watson en Pavlov: hoe we voorkeuren/angsten
ontstaan/maken/behandelen/voorkomen.
• Accidentally reinforcement: bijgeloof -> 1x handdoek aanraken voor de winst -> associatie
• Leren door classical conditioning, operant conditioning (reward or punishment) en imitatie.
• Deviancy training: elkaar trainen in bepaald gedrag -> vooral bij jongerengroepen (operant
conditioning)
• Leertheorie geeft verklaringen: Angst (respondent conditioning), Bijgeloof (operant conditioning),
Agressie (social)

Classical conditioning (response after reward -> Pavlov)
• Classical conditioning (acquisition): a procedure in which a neutral stimulus (meat) is paired with a
stimulus that triggers an automatic response (sound) until the neutral stimulus alone comes to
trigger a similar response (drool).
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that triggers a response without conditioning. (food)
• Unconditioned response (UCR): the automatic, unlearned reaction to a stimulus. (drooling)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS): an originally neutral stimulus that now triggers a conditioned response.
(sound)
• Conditioned response (CR): the response triggered by the conditioned stimulus. (drooling)
• Respondent extinction (flooding): the gradual disappearance of a conditioned response.
• Reconditioning: the relearning of a conditioned response following extinction
• Spontaneous recovery: the temporary reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.
• Stimulus generalization: a process in which a conditioned response is triggered by stimuli similar to
the original conditioned stimulus.
• Stimulus discrimination: a process through which people learn to differentiate among similar
stimuli and respond appropriately to each one. (not afraid of all dogs to bite)
o Responses develop when one event signals the appearance of another.
▪ Timing, predictability, intensity, attention, bio preparedness, higher order
conditioning
• Higher order conditioning: a process through which a conditioned stimulus comes to signal another
conditioned stimulus that is already associated with an unconditioned stimulus (white coat and
pain)

Operant conditioning (response before reward/punishment -> Skinner)
• Thorndike designed it, called the instrumental conditioning
o Law of effect: if a response made in the presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded, the
same response is more likely to occur when that stimulus is encountered again.
• Skinner called it operant conditioning -> Skinner Box designed.
• Operant conditioning: a process in which responses are learned on the basis of their rewarding or
punishing consequences
• Operant extinction: no positive reinforcement following the negative behavior to stop that
behavior.
o Gedrag neemt in frequentie af door operant extinction
• Operant: a response that has some effect on the world (going for a walk)

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