Janaan Farhat
History ME Notes
Week 1
Reading: use fifth or sixth edition of the book [preferably sixth edition]
*No need to remember every single battle, detail, event, etc. She will identify the most important key
events for us to remember. She also doesn’t follow the book strictly.
Chapter Four – History of the Modern Middle East
Selim III (1789-1806): Between Old and New
Policies constituted intensification of efforts at military reform carried out by 18 th century
predecessors
His goal: to preserve and strengthen the traditional Ottoman state, not transform it
Conservative ruler; vision of proper Ottoman order modeled after system of Suleyman the
Magnificent
Selim embarked on series of reforms designed to reorganize the existing armed forces along
European lines
Most ambitious military project: creation of entirely new infantry corps fully trained/equipped
according to European standards
o Unit called: nizam-i jedid (new order) composed of Turkish peasant youths
Opening to the West
Selim III decided to establish permanent Ottoman embassies in European capitals opened
up new channels for transmission of knowledge about West into educated Ottoman circles
o Impact of embassies slight: Ottoman ambassadors were ignorant of European langs.
Overthrow of Selim III
From start of Selim’s reign, Janissaries viewed his entire program of military reform as threat
to their independence they refused to serve alongside the new army
Further opposition from ulama
Deposed by rebellious Janissaries in 1806 successor: Mustafa IV
Next year: embassies in Europe dismantled, nizam-i jedid troops dispersed, deposed sultan
murdered
A revised Center of Power: Egypt of Muhammad Ali, 1805-1848
Mamluk Restoration and French Invasion
Mamluk regime unstable, oppressive, unpopular
o Operated through network of competing Mamluk households, each of which collected
taxes, employed troops, engaged in commercial ventures with local merchants and
European agents
o Ali Bey al-Kabir (1760-1773) expanded Egypt’s trade with Britain and France
Overthrown by his own Mamluk military commander
Napoleon’s French invasion of Egypt in 1798, defeated Mamluk forces at Battle of the Pyramids
unpopular
,Janaan Farhat
History ME Notes
British-Ottoman expedition landed in Egypt in 1801 evacuated French forces
o One imp. result of the French invasion to impress on local Middle Eastern rulers the
technological capabilities of European power
History of the Middle East – Lecture 1
No agreement about borders of the “Middle East”
The “Greater Middle East” George W. Bush; including Afghanistan, Sudan, etc.
o Bush was looking at this area of the world as “unstable”; and in US interest to
characterize Afghanistan as ME as well
ME is recent term
Europe is the one that has imagined this region as the “Middle East”
MENA; often excludes Turkey [Turkey now perceived as more European]
ME has been conceived by outsiders
Associating “stereotypes” with the Middle East
Middle East often associated with
o Religious conflicts
o Huge space of tension/violence [overgeneralization]; lack of appreciation for diversity in
sub-regions; pockets of security and insecurity related to interest
Edward W. Said; Orientalism
o Style of thought based on an ontological and epistemological distinction between “the
Orient” and (most of the time) “the Occident”
o Questions how power forms the discourse on politics
o “Middle East” thought of in terms of an “Other”, to define the “Occident” or the West
Middle East and question of “Civilizations”
o Term ‘Civilization’ appeared in 19th century [before Samuel Huntington published his
article]
o Opposition between Eastern (or Oriental) and Western civilization is present in the
thought of major 19th century philosophers, such as Hegel, Marx, Mill.
Issue of civilization is very important in Middle East;
o Norms/ Values
o Clash of civilizations [Samuel Huntington]; saw it as unavoidable, encompassing inherent
divisions
Early 20th century: History as rise and fall of civilization
o Decline of the West by Oswald Spengler
o A study of history by Arnold J. Toynbee
Civilization and colonization
o The “Oriental Question”: important, because France was interested in the Middle East;
huge literacy production in French to answer this question; went to different parts of
Ottoman Empire
Europe had experienced huge economic transformation through industrial
revolution
Gap between northern shores and southern shores of Mediterranean became
poignant
,Janaan Farhat
History ME Notes
Question: What do we do with the Ottoman Empire?
Eastern Question about: how can we dominate/take advantage of what’s going
on in Ottoman Empire?
o The “Near Eastern Question”
o “The civilizing mission”
What is the “Eastern Question”?
o Strategic competition amongst European Great Powers vis-à-vis the Ottoman Empire
from the late 18th to early 20th centuries
Ottoman Empire as “sick man of Europe”
Military defeats, institutional insolvency, rise of ethno-religious nationalism in
its provinces
British Empire had idea of “Near East”; interested in this part of the world because of the Suez
Canal; easy way to get to India; part of the imperial mentality
Each empire had its own way of looking at the world, and its own sphere of interest
Suez Canal as British ‘seas’
Map of the Sykes-Picot agreement (1916)
o Secret agreement, made by France and Britain’s foreign ministers
o Divided their spheres of influence, especially the Arab Levante and Iraq and Persian Gulf
In 2014, there was talk of the end of the ‘Sykes-Picot order’
o ISIS as between Iraq and Syria; they proclaimed their Caliphate in Mosul, they
specifically said “this is the end of the Sykes-Picot”
Birth of ‘international Community’
o League of Nations (1919-1939)
o UN
Principle of self-determination [Woodrow Wilson]; 14 points
Complete transformation of world; new borders
2014-2017: the rise (and fall) of the Islamic State
o IS as threatening this new world order composed of nationalist borders
Has the “Eastern Question” ended?
o Russia and US competing over Syria and Iraq
The irresistible temptation to ‘divide’ the Middle East (or colonial fetishism)?
o Framed by the idea that people of different religious backgrounds can NOT live together
o Think: Pakistan as state for Indian Muslims
o Afterwards: Partition of Bangladesh [so even when Muslims together, doesn’t mean that
there won’t be conflict]
o Religion as instrumentalized and used as coverage to pursue strategic material and
political interests
o Religious tensions are not really just informed by religious divisions
Geographical transformations
o Different forms of territorial control
Local (tribal, feudal) rule
Empires
Nation-state
, Janaan Farhat
History ME Notes
A post-state world?
o Human desire to control and dominate
o New ideas and imaginations
o “Just as none of us is outside or beyond geography, none of us is completely free from
the struggle over geography. That struggle is complex and interesting because it is not
only about soldiers and cannons but also about ideas, about forms, about images and
imaginings.” – Edward Said, Culture and Imperialism
Islam and/in Middle East
Pre-Islamic Arabia
o Arabian Peninsula – early 7th century
o Lack of central organizing authority
Tribal system
Family, clan, tribe, confederation
Arabic poetry qasidah facilitated the spread of Islam
o Polytheism in Arabia reflected tribal realities
Ka’ba: central shrine 360 idols of tribal deities
The Byzantine Empire (Christian Orthodox) vs. The Sassanid Empire
Mohammed, the Prophet (570-632) – Quraysh
o Quraysh tribe
o He married wealthy businesswoman and widow, Khadijah (Islam’s first convert)
o On Mount Hira he was summoned to his prophetic mission (“the Night of Power”)
o How do we know about him?
Quran
Hadith compilations: records of traditions (sunnah) or sayings of Muhammad
Biographies: Ibn Ishaq − written 100 years after death of Muhammad
From Mecca to Medina
o Tensions in Mecca push Muhammad & followers to Medina—hijrah
o Welcomed as a mediator among feuding tribes
o 630: Muhammad led a force of 10,000 men to Mecca and came to terms with Quraysh
leadership.
o Residents would retain their lives and property if they surrendered the city and
accepted Islam.
Common origin between the three monotheisms
Mecca (610-622)
o Muhammad received revelation at age of 40, on laylat ul qadr/ night of power
o Emergence of power competition between tribes
Hijra (622-632)
o Immigration of Muhammad to Medina (Yathrib)
o Welcomed as mediator between feuding tribes
Came back to Mecca
Succession
