Organizational Development
Designing Episodic Interventions
Written by: Jan Achterbergh and Dirk Vriens
1. Introduction
1.1 Organizational development: designing episodic interventions
The book is about episodic interventions in the structure of organizations, and the goal of the book is to
present a ‘3-D’ model that helps to understand and flexibly design episodic interventions in
organizational structures.
1.1.1 Organizations
Organizations are described as social systems delivering a societal contribution. Organizations can
positively contribute to the well-being of societal members. They can do so:
- By means of the societally valuable products or services they provide
- By means of providing non-product or non-service-related positive side effects such as
employment or the well-being of employees.
- By making sure that negative side-effects (e.g. pollution, inequality) are avoided as much as
possible.
Organizations deliver their societal contribution as a social system, i.e. as a system of interlocking
interactions.
- This means that organization members interact with each other and thereby realize the
organization’s contribution.
- It also means that an organization is seen as the (evolving) set of interactions. So for instance,
it is by means of such joint interactions of organization members over time that organizational
goals (which express the organization’s contribution to society) are set, and that the primary
processes realizing these goals are performed.
The interactions of organizational members, by means of which the organization’s contribution is set
and realized, are influenced by several factors, which are called interaction premises (=an idea or theory
on which a statement or action is based on):
- The way tasks are defined and related – the organization’s structure.
- Organizational goals, as interaction is directly or indirectly related to these goals
- Organizational culture, which for instance provides ‘informal rules’ about how organization
members should interact.
There is a circular relation between interactions and interaction premises. That is, interactions are
influenced by interaction premises, but these interaction premises are themselves also partly shaped by
means of interaction.
- The organization’s contribution is delivered in interaction (A), and this interaction is influenced
by interaction premises (such as structure, goals or culture – B). Moreover, these premises
themselves are shaped by interaction (C).
Interaction premises are subject to continuous experimentation, and this experimental change takes
effect in interaction.
- For instance, one can decide to choose some set of goals, realize them by means of
interaction, and hope that the organization’s contribution is viably secured by this set of goals.
One should monitor the appropriateness of the chosen goals and alter them if necessary.
1.1.2 Organizational structures and their development
The development of the structure of organizations is the intended improvement of the way tasks are
defined and related. Organizational (and structural) development usually comes about in
experimentation, and can hence be regarded as inherent to the continuous relation between interaction
and interaction premises.
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, - Structural development can sometimes become problematic in organizations. In fact, it can be
so problematic that episodic interventions are needed.
o Structures consisting of jobs in for instance general hospitals or functionally
concentrated (mostly bureaucratic organizations) factories are complex networks of
highly dependent small jobs with a large hierarchy of managers.
In general, such structures tend to have several negative side effects.
- They negatively affect employee well-being (basically due to no regulatory potential) and
production effectiveness and efficiency (due to high dependency and a hierarchy which results
in an error-prone, as every dependency relation is a possible source of errors).
1.1.3 Episodic interventions
Bureaucratic organizations have often lost their capacity for normal structural development, because of
their structure. In such a case, an episodic intervention may be required to regain the capacity for
structural development.
- In ‘healthy’ organizations, structural deficits can be solved by ‘normal’ continuous structural
development: organization members continuously monitor the way their job is structured and
whether this causes the experienced work-related problems. Based on their assessment, they
change the structure of their work in order to deal with experienced problems.
- Such ‘normal’ continuous structural development is problematic in bureaucratic organizations
as monitoring and changing the structure is no formal part of the small operational jobs.
Instead, it is the formal responsibility of the hierarchy of the managers. But, as these managers
are distant from the primary process, it is difficult for them to appreciate the connection
between problems in the primary process and the organizational structure.
To survive, the organization needs to alter its structure. Since this is problematic because of the
structure itself and since this structure cannot be altered by ‘normal’ structural development, another
type of structural development is needed: episodic interventions.
- These are: “intentional, deliberate, comprehensive changes to the organization’s structure that
have their own separate temporary intervention organization”.
o Deliberate and intentional, as they have the explicit goal to change the structure and
do so by means of explicit deliberation, which involves for instance explicitly devising
alternative structures and deliberating (=engaging in long and careful consideration)
about the choice between them.
o Comprehensive, as they set out to change the structure of a large part of even the
whole organization – not just a local change.
o Separate, temporary intervention organization on the top of the standing organization,
with a clear beginning and end.
1.2 The 3-D model: its outlines and use
The 3-D model has three dimensions: (1) functional (2) social and (3) infrastructural. These three
dimensions directly relate to three basic challenges faced by the episodic interventions in organizational
structures:
1. Ensuring that a well-designed structure is implemented in the organization – the functional
dimension;
2. Ensuring that the new structure is integrated in the interaction premises and interactions of the
organization members – the social dimension.
3. Designing the infrastructure of the intervention organization in such a way that it helps to meet
challenges 1 and 2 – the infrastructural dimension.
1.2.1 The functional dimension of the 3-D model
On the functional dimension, goals are specified that should be realized in order to increase the
probability that a ‘well-designed’ structure is implemented in the organization.
- The goals on the functional dimension that should be realized in the intervention in order to
increase the probability that a well-designed structure is implemented are:
o Diagnosis: finding problems and their structural causes and formulating a solution
space;
o Design: finding a structure that allows to deal with problems and/or their causes;
o Implementation: making the designed structure into an organizational reality;
o Evaluation: assessing whether the problems are solved by means of the implemented
structure.
1.2.2 The social dimension of the 3-D model
An episodic intervention in the structure of an organization also entails intervening in a social system. By
means of the intervention, both the structure-related interaction premises and the interactions based on
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,these premises should be changed in such a way that the new structure is integrated into the interaction
premises and interactions of organization members and thereby become the new social reality.
- The social dimension specifies the goals that should be realized in the intervention in order to
change the interaction premises and interactions of organizations. These goals are:
o Motivation: organization members develop the motivation to let go of current and
move to new interaction premises and interactions and adopt the episodic intervention
as a means to do this;
o Adoption: based on justifiable confidence, organization members willingly commit to
new helping interaction premises and interactions that can (re)produce an improved
organizational structure that allows for the realization of the goal of the intervention;
o Integration: organization members have irreversibly integrated new interactions and
interaction premises into their repertoires that both (re)produce that organization’s
new and improved structure and allow for the realization of the goal of the
intervention.
In order to realize the goal of the intervention, both the functional and social goals in the intervention
should be realized.
1.2.3 The infrastructural dimension of the 3-D model
Episodic interventions in self-inhibiting (=self-hindering) organizational structures need a temporary and
separate intervention organization in order to support the intervention.
- If the episodic intervention is to be a success, the intervention organization needs to be
designed in such a way that:
o The right human resources, with the right knowledge, skills and motivation (human
resources),
o Using the right tools and techniques (intervention technology),
o Work together in a network of intervention tasks (intervention structure) that can
realize functional and social goals in the intervention.
In order to realize the functional and social goals in the intervention, and thereby the goal of the
intervention, a well-designed intervention infrastructure is needed.
1.2.4 How the 3-D model
can be used
In order to design the infrastructure of the intervention organization, one starts by setting so-called
proximate functional and social goals in the intervention.
- These proximate functional and social goals are functional and social goals that are next in line
to be realized. For instance, at the start of the intervention, ‘diagnosis’ and ‘motivation’ may be
set as proximate functional and social goals. Given these proximate functional and social
goals:
o Intervention activities, in this case related to diagnosis and motivation, are grouped
into intervention tasks that can be performed by human resources that should be
involved in the intervention (intervention structure)
o Intervention techniques and tools are selected that are needed in order to perform
these intervention tasks (intervention technology)
o Human resources are selected and/or trained in order to perform the intervention
tasks using the selected intervention technology (human resources).
In this way, an intervention infrastructure is designed that is geared to the realization of the selected
proximate functional and social goals.
- Once these selected proximate functional and social goals are realized, or if unexpected
problems or opportunities present themselves, new proximate functional and social goals may
be set and/or a new design of the intervention infrastructure may be made.
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, 1.3 And now for something different
1.3.1 Zooming in, instead of zooming out
This book differs from textbooks that zoom out and address ‘organizational change’ as a general
phenomenon. Instead, this book zooms in because organizational change is a topic that is too
variegated to be treated in a general way. When talking about organizational change, it is relevant to
take at least kind, object and context of change into account.
1. Different kinds of organizational change should be distinguished, ranging from the continuous
self-production of the organization as a social system to episodic interventions in particular
parts or aspects of organizations.
o Addressing these different issues requires a variety of specialized theoretical
approaches, concepts, methods and tools.
2. Different objects of change should be distinguished. For instance, as an object of change, the
culture of an organization differs from its technology.
3. Different contexts of change should be distinguished. For instance, changing an organization
with a complex and hierarchical organizational structure is a different and more challenging
enterprise than changing an organization with a simple structure that allows for semi-
autonomous teams.
1.3.2 Episodic interventions: combining their functional and social dimensions
Because one-sided attention to either the functional or the social dimension of episodic interventions in
organizational structures can be hazardous, the 3-D model pays attention to both dimensions.
- It uses functional and social goals that should be set on these dimensions as point of departure
for the flexible design of intervention infrastructures that can support the realization and
adaptation of these functional and social goals.
1.3.3 Episodic interventions as a mode of organizational change
Weick and Quinn (1999) discuss episodic and continuous change as opposites. Achterbergh and
Vriens, however do not oppose episodic change to continuous change, but episodic interventions to
continuous interventions and both are seen as modes of organizational change.
- Everything that happens in the organization as a social system happens in the organizational
flux.
o Organizations are involved in the continuous processes of self-production. Both the
continuous production of new interactions and the change of interaction premises can
be described as a continuous process of ‘birth’ as a ‘flow’ or ‘flux’.
Episodic and continuous interventions are two of the many modes of that flux.
- So, besides modes of organizational change that are not intentional and do not involve
deliberation, episodic and continuous interventions are modes of organizational change that do
involve intentions and deliberation.
Being a social system called ‘organization’ means being a flux. Outside this flux, there is no
organization. This implies that organizations cannot be ‘inert’, cannot be ‘frozen’ and therefore do not
need to be ‘unfrozen’.
As particular modes of change episodic and continuous interventions have in common that they are
intentional and involve deliberation.
- However, because they are part of the continuous self-production of the organization as a
social system, of the pattern of endless modifications in work processes and social practices,
the intentional and deliberative character of episodic and continuous interventions does not
imply that these interventions can or should evolve according to some blue-print project plan.
o Episodic and continuous interventions are processes of continuous trial and error, of
muddling through.
They are a kind of experiments that require continuous situational
adjustments of functional and social goals as well of the means that are
needed to realize these goals.
Episodic interventions are experiments that require situational and flexible design and may involve many
parties in different roles.
1.3.4 Flexible design of the infrastructure of intervention organization
In order to perform an episodic intervention in the structure of an organization, an intervention
organization is required. This intervention organization is a temporary organization, ‘on top of’ or
‘parallel to’ the organization that is being changed. Five assumptions with regard to episodic
interventions need to be discussed:
1. Presupposition of representation and exclusion: the intervention infrastructure consists of only
a relatively small group of organizational members who participate in the intervention,
representing their colleagues.
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