This summary consists of lecture notes of all the lectures (7). For a summary of all articles that were used in this course, I refer to my other document of Gerontology.
Lecture 1: Normal aging part I
Learning objectives:
- Know about the psychological, cognitive and biological changes that accompany normal aging
- Know about the biological and psychological theories of aging
- Know about the signs and symptoms of the most common dementia syndromes
- Know about the daily life consequences of dementia syndromes for patients and their families
Life course trajectories of body functions:
A: Normal development
and decline
B: Exposure in early life
may leave imprints on
structures or function of
body systems
C: Exposure acting in mid
or in later life accelerating
age-related decline
There are different definitions of age:
- Chronological age: measured in units of time (months or years) that have elapsed since birth
- Biological age: where people stand relative to the number of years that they will live (in terms
of the body’s organ system and physical appearance)
- Functional age: person’s competence in carrying out specific tasks (in comparison with the
chronological age of peers)
- Psychological age: how well a person adapts to changing conditions
- Social age: views held by most members of a society about what individuals in a particular
chronological age group should do and how they should behave
There are also different perspectives on the aging process:
- Normative aging: what is considered a usual, normal, or average outcome
- Successful aging: what is considered an ideal rather than an average outcome
- Positive aging: the ability to find happiness and well-being even in the face of physical and/or
psychological challenges
There are 2 theoretical models of aging:
1. The selective optimization with compensation model of aging (Baltes & Baltes, 1990):
individuals engage in adaptation throughout their lives. They are capable of learning and
changing and calling upon extra (reserve) capacity that they might not need to use under
ordinary circumstances
- Selection: a strategy of concentrating efforts on domains in which effective
functioning is most likely to remain high
- Optimization: a strategy of focusing on behaviors that maximize not only the quantity
but also the quality of life
- Compensation: substituting new strategies when losses occur
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, 2. The ecological model of aging (Lawton & Nahemow, 1973): the interaction between a
person’s competence and environment results in some level of adaptation. This is measured in
a person’s emotional well-being. A person with high competence will adapt positively to a
wider range of environmental press than a person with low competence
Competence refers to physical,
sensory, cognitive and social
capabilities.
Life span refers to the maximum longevity (or extreme upper limit of time) that members of a species
can live (max ≈ 120 years). This has stayed the same over years. Life expectancy refers to the average
number of years that individuals in a particular birth cohort can be expected to live. This has increased
over time. More and more people will approach the maximum life span.
Primary aging refers to the unavoidable (inevitable) biological process that affects all members of a
species (universal). This process is determined by factors within the organism. Secondary aging results
from hostile environmental influences and is experienced by most, but not necessarily all members of
a species (neither inevitable nor universal).
There are 2 main theories of the biology of aging:
1. Programmed theories: consider aging to be under the control of a genetically based blueprint
(related to primary aging)
- Time clock theory: the life span is controlled by a genetically determined time clock
at a cellular level. Cells from infants and young children divide more times than cells
from older adults. Recent studies found that telomeres (the protective cap at the tail
ends of chromosomes) shorten with age, and eventually cell division stops
- Immune theory: the immune system is programmed to maintain its efficiency for a
certain amount of time, after which it starts to decline. This leads to insufficient
antibodies and/or inferior antibodies (who mistakenly attack and destroy normal
cells). This is linked to cancer
- Evolutionary theory: members of species are genetically programmed to bear and rear
their young. Once they reproduce and raise their offspring to independence, they have
fulfilled their service in perpetuating the species. Depending on the energy levels, the
organism coasts along for a period of time. Once the excess of energy is used up, the
susceptibility to diseases increases
2. Stochastic theories: focus on random damage to our vital systems that occurs with the process
of aging (related to secondary aging). As damage accumulates, we cease to function
efficiently and eventually life becomes impossible to sustain
- Error theory: errors occur at a cellular level resulting in the production of faulty
molecules. These molecules may build up over time, resulting into metabolic failure
- Wear and tear theory: we begin life with a fixed amount of physiological energy. If
we expend it quickly, aging begins early and proceeds rapidly
- Stress theory: stress triggers physiological activation that results in the secretion of
stress-related hormones (glucocorticoids). This stress system quickly returns to
normal levels in young organisms, but this takes more time in older organisms. This
leads to prolonged exposure to glucocorticoids. This stress-related damage can
accelerate the aging process
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, People who are married are more likely to have normal habits such as physical activity, eating
breakfast, wearing seatbelts and abstaining from smoking. This association is stronger for older men
than for older women. Older adults with fewer social contacts were also less likely to have normal
habits than those with more social contacts.
Grip strength age trajectories:
Arthritis refers to the degeneration of joints, which causes pain and loss of movement (the most
common form is osteoarthritis). Risk factors are increasing age, obesity, heredity, low socioeconomic
status and female gender.
Osteoporosis is the extreme loss of bone mass and the deterioration of bone tissue. This results in bone
fragility and susceptibility to fracture. Risk factors are increasing age, female gender, family history,
smoking, low lifetime calcium and vitamin D intake and an inactive lifestyle.
Common diseases regarding the cardiovascular system are atherosclerosis (the inside of an artery
narrows due to the build-up of plaque), hypertension, aneurysm (the enlargement of an artery caused
by weakness in the arterial wall, this enlargement can break) and stroke.
Lecture 2: Normal aging part II
Neuroimaging techniques that can be used to study the structure of the brain are Computerized
Tomography (CT) and Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(fMRI) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET) are used to study the activity in the brain.
Changes in the brain:
The weight of the brain decreases up to 10% by the 10th decade. The weight of the brain relative to
body weight stays relatively stable from the age of 20 years and older.
The volume of the cerebral cortex as a whole declines when aging. This is a decline of 0.12% per year
in younger adults and 0.35% per year in adults over 52 years of age.
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