Chapter 1: Psychology Is a Way of Thinking
Research producers are individuals who conduct and publish research. R
esearch consumers are people
who read about research so they can later apply it to their work, hobbies, relationships, or personal
growth.
Evidence-based treatments are therapies that are supported by research
➝ A well-intentioned program that seems to make sense might actually be doing harm
Empiricism involves using evidence from the senses or from instruments that assist the senses as the
basis for conclusions
➝ Basing conclusions on systematic observations of the world
➝ The most reliable basis for conclusions compared to other forms of reasoning
➝ Conducting studies on people and animals acting in their natural environments or in specially
designed situations
The c upboard theory of mother-infant attachment claims that a mother is valuable to a baby mammal
because she is a source of food. The contact comfort theory suggests that babies are attached to their
mothers because of the comfort of a cozy touch.
A theory has claims about the relationship between variables. A h
ypothesis is a specific outcome the
researcher expects to observe in a study if the theory is accurate
➝ Most researchers test their theories with a series of empirical studies, each designed to test an
individual hypothesis
Data are a set of observations. It can either support or challenge the theory.
Good theories are supported by data, are falsifiable and p
arsimonious (if two theories explain the data
equally well, but one is more simple than the other, one must choose the simple theory).
Applied research i s done with a practical problem in mind; the researchers conduct their work in a
particular real-world context. Basic research is not intended to address a specific, practical problem; the
goal is to enhance the general body of knowledge. T
ranslational research is the use of lessons from
basic research to develop and test applications to health care, psychotherapy, or other forms of
treatment and intervention.
, Chapter 2: Sources of Information
The a
vailability heuristic states that things that pop up easily in our mind tend to guide our thinking.
When events or memories are vivid, recent, or memorable, they come to mind more easily, leading us to
overestimate how often things happen.
The p
resent/present bias occurs if you only look at things that are present and not at things that are
absent. Avoid through comparison.
Confirmatory hypothesis testing is not a scientific way of conducting research. Confirmation bias is the
tendency to look only at information that agrees with what we already believe.
Bias blind spot i s the belief that we are unlikely to fall prey to the other biases previously described.
Psychological scientists usually publish their research in three kinds of sources: scientific journals, book
chapters, and whole books.
Journal articles a
re written for an audience of other psychological scientists and psychology students.
Empirical journal articles (i.e., e
mpiricist articles) report the results of an (empirical) research study for
the first time and contain details about the study’s method, the statistical tests used, and the results.
Review articles provide a summary of all the published studies that have been done in one research
area. Sometimes uses a quantitative technique called m
eta-analysis, which combines the results of
many studies and gives a number that summarizes the magnitude, or the effect size, of a relationship.
, Chapter 3: Three Claims, Four Validities
A variable is something that varies, so it must have at least two levels or values. A constant is
something that could potentially vary but that has only one level in the study in question. A measured
variable is one whose levels are simply observed and recorded. A manipulated variable is a variable a
researcher controls, usually by assigning study participants to the different levels of that variable.
Conceptual variables are abstract concepts, such as ‘spending time socializing’ and ‘school
achievement.’ These are sometimes called c onstructs
➝ Conceptual variables must be carefully defined at the theoretical level, and these definitions are
called conceptual definitions
When testing hypotheses with empirical research, researchers create o
perational definitions of
variables, also known as operational variables, or o
perationalizations
➝ To operationalize means to turn a concept of interest into a measured or manipulated variable
A claim is an argument someone is trying to make. F
requency claims describe a particular rate or
degree of a single variable
➝ Focus on one variable
➝ The variables are always measured, not manipulated
An association claim argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level
of another variable
➝ Correlational studies are used to measure the variables and test the relationship between them
Some association claims are useful because they help us make predictions. The stronger the relationship
between the two variables, the more accurate our predictions will be.
A causal claim argues that one of the variables is responsible for changing the other. Causal claims start
with a positive or negative association. To move from association → causality, a study has to satisfy
three criteria:
➝ Establish that the two variables are correlated; the relationship cannot be 0
➝ Show that the causal variable came first and the outcome variable came later
➝ Establish that no other explanations exist for the relationship
Therefore, only an experiment can support a causal claim because it meets all three criteria.
Validity refers to the appropriateness of a conclusion or decision, and in general, a valid claim is
reasonable, accurate, and justifiable. C
onstruct validity measures the extent to which the operational
variables in a study are a good approximation of the conceptual variables. E
xternal validity is the extent
to which the results of a study generalize to some larger population, as well as to other times or
situations. Statistical validity measures the extent to which the data support the conclusion. In a
relationship between one variable (A) and another (B), internal validity is the extent to which A, rather
than some other variable (C), is responsible for changes in B.
