Samenvatting
Complete Samenvatting Biopsychologie
Summary study book Biological Psychology of Kalat, J.W. - ISBN: 9781111839529, Edition: 11e druk, Year of publication: 2009
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BIOPSYCHOLOGIESAMENVATTING
1.
THE
MAJOR
ISSUES
Module
1.1
The
Mind-‐Brain
Relationship
Biological
psychology
is
the
study
of
the
physiological,
evolutionary,
and
developmental
mechanisms
of
behavior
and
experience.
The
term
biological
psychology
emphasizes
that
the
goal
is
to
relate
the
biology
to
issues
of
psychology.
Neuroscience
as
a
field
certainly
includes
much
that
is
relevant
to
behavior,
but
it
also
includes
more
detail
about
anatomy
and
chemistry.
The
human
brain
from
the
top
is
called
a
dorsal
view,
and
from
the
bottom
is
called
a
ventral
view.
An
inspection
of
brain
areas
reveals
distinct
subareas.
At
the
microscopic
level,
we
find
two
kinds
of
cells:
the
neurons
and
the
glia.
Neurons,
which
convey
messages
to
one
another
and
to
muscles
and
glands,
vary
enormously
in
size,
shape,
and
function.
The
glia,
generally
smaller
than
neurons,
have
many
function
but
do
not
convey
information
over
great
distances.
Biological
explanations
of
behavior
-‐ A
psychological
explanation
relates
a
behavior
to
the
activity
of
the
brain
and
other
organs.
It
deals
with
the
machinery
of
the
body.
-‐ An
ontogenetic
explanation
describes
the
development
of
a
structure
or
a
behavior.
It
traces
the
influences
of
genes,
nutrition,
experiences,
and
their
interactions
in
molding
behavior.
-‐ An
evolutionary
explanation
reconstructs
the
evolutionary
history
of
a
structure
or
behavior.
-‐ A
functional
explanation
describes
why
a
structure
or
behavior
evolved
as
it
did.
Within
a
small,
isolated
population,
a
gene
can
spread
by
accident
through
a
process
called
genetic
drift.
The
brain
and
conscious
experience
Biological
explanations
of
behavior
raise
the
mind-‐body
or
mind-‐brain
problem:
What
is
the
relationship
between
the
mind
and
the
brain?
The
most
widespread
view
among
nonscientists
is
dualism,
the
belief
that
mind
and
body
are
different
kinds
of
substance
–
mental
substance
and
physical
substance
–
that
exist
independently.
Descartes
proposed
that
mind
and
brain
interact
at
the
pineal
gland.
The
decisive
objection
is
that
dualism
conflicts
with
the
law
of
the
conservation
of
matter
and
energy.
The
alternative
to
dualism
is
monism,
the
belief
that
the
universe
consists
of
only
one
kind
of
substance.
Various
forms
of
monism
are
possible:
-‐ Materialism:
the
view
that
everything
that
exists
is
material,
or
physical
-‐ Mentalism:
the
view
that
only
the
mind
really
exists
and
that
the
physical
world
could
not
exist
unless
some
mind
were
aware
of
it.
-‐ Identity
position:
the
view
that
mental
processes
are
the
same
thing
as
certain
kinds
of
brain
processes
but
are
described
in
different
terms.
Mind
is
brain
activity.
Because
we
cannot
observe
consciousness,
none
of
us
knows
for
sure
even
that
other
people
are
conscious,
much
less
other
species.
According
to
the
position
known
as
solipsism
I
alone
exist,
or
I
alone
am
conscious.
The
difficult
of
knowing
whether
other
people
(or
animals)
have
conscious
experiences
is
known
as
the
problem
of
other
minds.
The
easy
,problem
pertain
to
many
phenomenon
that
we
call
consciousness,
such
as
the
difference
between
wakefulness
and
sleep
and
the
mechanisms
that
enable
us
to
focus
our
attention.
The
hard
problem
concerns
why
and
how
any
kind
of
brain
activity
is
associated
with
consciousness.
(David
Chalmers).
Research
approaches
The
test
data
imply
that
consciousness
of
a
stimulus
depends
on
the
amount
of
brain
activity.
Seeing
something
is
closely
related
to
seeing
where
it
is,
and
the
red
vertical
lines
cannot
be
in
the
same
place
as
the
green
horizontal
lines.
Because
your
brain
cannot
perceive
both
patterns
in
the
same
location,
your
perception
alternates.
For
a
while,
you
see
the
red
and
black
lines,
and
then
gradually
the
green
and
black
invade
your
consciousness.
Then
perception
shifts
back
to
the
red
and
black.
Sometimes
you
will
see
red
lines
in
part
of
the
visual
field
and
green
lines
in
the
other.
These
shift,
known
as
binocular
rivalry,
are
slow
and
gradual,
sweeping
from
one
side
to
another.
One
way
to
mark
a
pattern
of
brain
activity
is
to
use
a
stimulus
that
oscillates.
Module
1.2
The
Genetics
of
Behavior
Mendelian
genetics
Mendel
demonstrated
that
inheritance
occurs
through
genes,
units
of
heredity
that
maintain
their
structural
identity
from
one
generation
to
another.
As
a
rule,
genes
come
in
pairs
because
they
are
aligned
along
chromosomes
(strands
of
genes),
which
also
come
in
pairs.
A
gene
is
a
portion
of
a
chromosome,
which
is
composed
of
the
double-‐stranded
molecule
deoxyribonucleic
acid
(DNA).
A
strand
of
DNA
serves
as
a
template
(model)
for
the
synthesis
of
ribonucleic
acid
(RNA)
molecules,
RNA
is
a
single-‐strand
chemical;
one
type
of
RNA
molecule
serves
as
a
template
for
the
synthesis
of
protein
molecules.
Some
proteins
form
part
of
the
structure
of
the
body;
others
serve
as
enzymes,
biological
catalysts
that
regulate
chemical
reactions
in
the
body.
Anyone
with
an
identical
pair
of
genes
on
the
two
chromosomes
is
homozygous
for
that
gene.
An
individual
with
an
unmatched
pair
of
genes
is
heterozygous
for
that
gene.
A
dominant
gene
shows
a
strong
effect
in
either
the
homozygous
or
heterozygous
condition;
a
recessive
gene
shows
its
effects
only
in
the
homozygous
condition.
The
exception
comes
about
as
a
result
of
crossing
over:
a
pair
of
chromosomes
may
break
apart
during
reproduction
and
reconnect
such
that
part
of
one
chromosome
attaches
to
the
other
part
of
the
second
chromosome.
The
genes
located
on
the
sex
chromosomes
are
known
as
sex-‐linked
genes.
All
other
chromosomes
are
autosomal
chromosomes,
and
their
genes
are
known
as
autosomal
genes.
A
female
has
two
X
chromosomes;
a
male
has
an
X
and
a
Y
=
sex
chromosomes.
The
human
Y
chromosome
has
genes
for
only
27
proteins,
far
fewer
than
other
chromosomes.
The
X
chromosome
has
genes
for
about
1500
proteins.
Thus,
when
biologists
speak
of
sex-‐linked
genes,
they
usually
mean
X-‐linked
genes.
, Distinct
from
sex-‐linked
genes
are
the
sex-‐limited
genes,
which
are
present
in
both
sexes,
but
have
effects
mainly
or
exclusively
for
one
sex.
If
reproduction
always
produced
offspring
that
were
exact
copies
of
the
parents,
evolution
would
not
occur.
One
source
of
variation
is
recombination,
a
new
combination
of
genes,
some
from
one
parent
and
some
from
the
other,
that
yields
characteristics
not
found
in
either
parent.
A
more
powerful
source
of
variation
is
a
mutation,
or
change
in
a
single
gene.
A
mutation
leading
to
an
altered
protein
is
almost
always
disadvantageous.
A
mutation
that
modifies
the
amount
or
timing
of
protein
production
is
closer
to
neutral
and
sometimes
advantageous.
Heredity
and
environment
Researchers
have
found
evidence
for
a
significant
heritability
of
almost
every
behavior
they
have
tested.
A
few
examples
are
loneliness,
neuroticism,
television
watching,
and
social
attitudes.
The
multiplier
effect:
if
genetic
or
prenatal
influences
produce
even
a
small
increase
in
some
activity,
the
early
tendency
will
change
the
environment
in
a
way
that
magnifies
that
tendency.
A
gene
that
affects
almost
anything
in
your
body
will
indirectly
affect
your
choice
of
activities
and
the
way
other
people
respond.
The
evolution
of
behavior
Every
gene
is
subject
to
evolution
by
natural
selection.
Evolution
is
a
change
over
generations
in
the
frequencies
of
various
genes
in
a
population.
Note
that,
by
this
definition,
evolution
includes
any
change
in
gene
frequencies.
Jean
Lamarck’s
theory
of
evolution
through
the
inheritance
of
acquired
characteristics,
known
as
Lamarckian
evolution;
if
giraffes
stretch
their
necks
as
far
out
as
possible,
their
offspring
will
be
born
with
longer
necks.
No
mechanisms
have
been
found.
By
definition,
evolution
improves
the
average
fitness
of
the
population,
which
is
operationally
defines
as
the
number
of
copies
of
one’s
genes
that
endure
in
later
generations.
Does
evolution
act
to
benefit
the
individual
or
the
species?
Neither:
it
benefits
the
genes!
Evolutionary
psychology
or
sociobiology
deals
with
how
behaviors
have
evolved,
especially
social
behaviors.
Reciprocal
altruism:
the
idea
that
animals
help
those
who
help
them
in
return.
Kin
selection:
selection
for
a
gene
because
it
benefits
the
individual’s
relatives.
Module
1.3
The
Use
of
Animals
in
Research
1. The
underlying
mechanisms
of
behavior
are
similar
across
species
and
sometimes
easier
to
study
in
a
nonhuman
species
2. We
are
interested
in
animals
for
their
own
sake
3. What
we
learn
about
animals
sheds
light
on
human
evolution
4. Certain
experiments
cannot
use
humans
because
of
legal
or
ethical
restrictions
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