How the special needs brain learns
By David A. Sousa
Chapter 1: The brain and learning (p.9 – p.19)
Introduction:
Although comparatively slow in growth and development compared to the brains of other mammals, the
human brain can learn complex skills, master any of nearly 7000 languages and store memories for a lifetime.
Early in life, the brain’s cells grow and connect with each other to store information and skills gathered from its
environment. Neuroplasticity is the brain’s ability to continually reorganize and reconnect its neural pathways
because of input from the environment.
Some exterior parts of the brain: lobes of the brain
Several major wrinkles and folds are common to all brains creating a set of four lobes in each hemisphere:
1. Frontal lobe = at the front of the brain containing almost 50% of the volume of the cerebral
hemispheres. It contains the prefrontal cortex. Furthermore, it deals with planning, thinking and it
comprises the rational and executive control centre of the brain. The efficiency of this area is linked to
the limbic centres. It also contains our self-will area, also known as our personality, so trauma to the
frontal lobe can cause behavioural and personality changes. Also, most of the working memory is
located here so it is the area where focus occurs. The frontal lobe matures slowly and continues to
mature into early adulthood. In this time used neural pathways are strengthened and unused neurons
are being pruned. The last part of the brain to grow up is the part capable of making rational decisions,
understanding consequences of one’s actions, putting the brakes on emotional impulses.
2. Temporal lobe = at the side of the brain and deals with sound,
music, face and object recognition, parts of long-term memory. It
contains the speech centres (mostly on the left side)
3. Occipital lobe = at the back of the brain, and used almost
exclusively for visual processing
4. Parietal lobe = at the top of the brain, and deals with spatial
orientation, calculation and recognition
Some exterior parts of the brain: the motor cortex and somatosensory
cortex
Between the parietal lobes are two bands across the top from ear to ear. The motor cortex is the band closest
to the front and controls body movement and works with the cerebellum to coordinate the learning of motor
skills. The band behind that is the somatosensory cortex which processes touch signals.
Some exterior parts of the brain: the Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a two-hemisphere structure below the rear part of the cerebrum, right behind the brainstem.
It is deeply folded, highly organized and contains more neurons than all the rest of the brain. The cerebellum
coordinates movement. It monitors impulses from nerve endings in muscles and is therefore important for the
performance and timing of complex motor skills. It may also store the memory of automated movements.
Through automation, performance ca be improved as the sequences of movements can be made faster, with
greater accuracy and less effort. It is also important for the mental rehearsal of motor tasks. Recent studies
found that it also acts as a support structure in cognitive processing by coordinating and fine-tuning our
thoughts, emotions, senses and memories
Some interior parts of the brain: the brainstem
The brainstem is the oldest and deepest area of the brain, it sometimes is referred to as the reptilian brain.
Through the brainstem vital body functions are monitored and controlled. It also houses the reticular activating
system (RAS), which is responsible for the brain’s alertness.
,Some interior parts of the brain: the limbic system
The limbic system is sometimes referred to as the mammalian brain. Most of the structures of the limbic
system are replicated in each hemisphere of the brain. It carries out the generation of emotions and processing
emotional memories, which is possible due to it placement between the cerebrum and the brainstem which
causes an interplay between emotion and reason. Four parts of the limbic system important to learning and
memory are:
1. Thalamus = receives incoming sensory information and directs
it to other parts of the brain for further processing
2. Hypothalamus = monitors the internal systems to maintain
homeostasis in the body by controlling the release of a variety
of hormones
3. Hippocampus = plays a major role in consolidating learning
and converting information from working memory via
electrical signals to the long-term storage regions. It
constantly checks information relayed to working memory and
compares it to stored experiences. This process is essential for
the creation of meaning.
4. Amygdala = plays a role in emotions, especially fear and anxiety. It regulates the individual’s
interactions with the environment that can affect survival. Only the emotional component of a
memory is stored in the amygdala while other cognitive components of that memory are stored
elsewhere.
Some interior parts of the brain: the cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest area. Its surface is pale gray, wrinkled and marked by furrows called fissures. A
large fissure divides the cerebrum from front to back into two halves, called the cerebral hemispheres. Nerves
from both sides crossover to the other side. The two hemispheres are connected by a thick cable of nerve
fibres called the corpus collosum which is used to communicate and coordinate activities between
hemispheres. The hemispheres are covered by a thin, but tough laminated cortex. The neurons in the thin
cortex form columns whose branches extend down through the cortical layer into a dense web below known as
the white matter. Here neurons connect to form a vast arrays of neural networks that carry out specific
functions. Thinking, memory, speech and muscular movement are controlled by areas in the cerebrum.
Some interior parts of the brain: brain cells
The control functions and other activities of the brain are carried out by signals traveling along brain cells.
There are two known types: nerve cells and support cells. Nerve cells are called neurons. Most of the cells are
support cells, also called glial cells, that hold the neurons together and act as filters to keep harmful substances
out of the neurons. Unlike other cells, neurons can have dendrites (branches) emerging from its centre.
Dendrites receive electrical impulses from other neurons and transmit them along the fibre called the axon.
Each neuron has only one axon surrounded by a layer of myelin which allows an increased speed of impulse
transmission. Neurons have no direct contact with each other. Between a dendrite and an axon is a small gap
known as a synapse. In the synapse the activity releases chemical stored in sacks (synaptic vesicles) at the end
of the axon. These chemicals are known as neurotransmitters and can either excite or inhibit the neighbouring
neuron.
Recently clusters of neurons in the premotor cortex (in front of motor cortex and plans movement)
have been found, firing just before a person carries out a planned movement. However, these neurons also fire
when a person saw someone else perform the movement. Thus, similar brain areas process both the
production and perception of movement. These ”mirror neurons” may help an individual decode the intentions
and predict the behaviour of others. Mirror neurons also allow us to re-create the experience of others within
ourselves and to understand others’ emotions and empathize.
Learning and retention:
Learning occurs when the synapses make physical and chemical changes so that the influence of one neuron on
another also changes. The brain will hardly run out of space to store all that an individual learns in a lifetime.
, Learning is the process by which we acquire new knowledge and skills. Memory is the process by which we
retain knowledge and skills for the future. Just as muscles improve with exercise, the brain can improve by
learning which allows brain cells to increase their size, their branches and their ability to form more complex
networks. Storing not only gives rise to new neural pathways but it also strengthens existing pathways. Keep in
mind that when we learn information that is only needed for a short period of time it does not lead to long-
term retention.
A look at memory systems:
Retention requires that the learner not only gives conscious attention during learning but also builds
conceptual frameworks that have sense and meaning for eventual consolidation into long-term storage.
Incoming information makes a brief stop at immediate memory where information is held for a few seconds. If
we want to actually take time to process and manipulate new information, we must move it into working
memory. Working memory has a limited capacity and can process only a small number of items at one time. At
some point after processing information in working memory, the memory systems have to decide to tag the
new information for eventual storage in long-term memory or to discard it from the system to be forgotten.
Implications for students with learning difficulties:
Students with learning difficulties can have problems focusing for very long and therefore are more likely to
perceive learning facts as a temporary effort. Teachers of these students need to emphasize why they need to
learn certain material. Meaning (or relevancy) becomes the key to focus, learning and retention. Retention is
the process whereby long-term memory preserves a learning in such a way that the memory van be located,
identified and retrieved accurately in the future. Factor influencing retention are:
The degree of focus
The length and type of rehearsal
Critical attributes that have been identified
Learning style
Impact of any learning difficulties
Prior learning
Rehearsal:
Retention is based on two criteria:
1. Sense = whether the student understand the learning
2. Meaning = refers to relevancy
Rehearsal is the continuing reprocessing of the information which is needed in order to attach sense and
meaning to it. Rehearsal is a critical component in the transference of information from working memory to
long-term memory. Initial rehearsal is when the information first enters working memory. Secondary rehearsal
allows the learner to review the information, to make sense of it, to elaborate on the details, to assign value
and relevance, and thus increasing the chance of long-term storage. The frontal lobe is very much involved in
this process.
Rote rehearsal is used when learners need to remember and store information exactly as it is entered
into the working memory. This rehearsal often involves direct instruction. Elaborative rehearsal is used when it
is unnecessary to store information exactly as learned and when it is important to associate new learnings with
prior learning to detect relationships. With elaborative rehearsal it is important to interpret the message
behind the information, not the exact information itself.
Learning motor skills:
Studies show a person uses the frontal lobe, motor cortex, and cerebellum while learning a new physical skill.
When first learning a skill, attention and awareness are required. The frontal lobe is engaged because of
working memory and the motor cortex of the cerebrum interacts with the cerebellum to control muscle
movement. As practice continues, the activated areas in of the motor cortex become larger. However, the
memory of the skill is not yet established until after practice stops. This consolidation in the cerebellum takes 4
to 12 months and occurs during deep sleep. Once the skill is mastered, brain activity shifts to the cerebellum
where movements are organized, coordinated and the performance is timed. Procedural memory as the
