Theme 1: Introduction [Development and psychopathology]
How to define Normal [typical] Vs. Abnormal [atypical]
1. Normal as absence of disorders.
In this view, normalcy is defined by the absence of any diagnosable mental, emotional, or
behavioral disorders. It suggests that individuals who do not display symptoms of recognized
disorders are considered normal.
2. Normal as statistical average.
From a statistical perspective, normalcy might be defined by conformity to the statistical
average of a particular trait or behavior within a given population. Deviations from this
average might be considered abnormal.
3. Normal as an ideal or desired state.
This perspective defines normalcy based on societal or cultural norms and ideals. Behavior,
thoughts, and emotions that align with these norms are considered normal, while deviations
from them might be labeled as abnormal.
4. Normal as successful 'adaptation'.
Individuals who can effectively cope with life stressors, maintain satisfying relationships, and
achieve personal goals are considered normal.
4 D’s:
Dysfunction: Refers to a disruption or impairment in an individual's ability to function normally in
their daily life.
This can manifest as difficulty with work or school, interpersonal relationships, or self-care.
Distress: Refers to a level of emotional or psychological discomfort experienced by an individual,
which may lead to anxiety, depression, or other mental health concerns.
Deviance: Refers to behavior that is different or unusual
Compared to what is considered normal or acceptable in society. This can include behaviors
that are outside of cultural norms, values, or expectations.
Danger: Refers to behavior that poses a potential risk to the individual or others around them.
This can include self-harm or harm to others, or other behaviors that may result in physical
harm or legal consequences.
"Reification" is the process of treating abstract concepts, like mental health conditions, as if they
were concrete, real objects or things. When naming and explaining are confused, it means that
people might mistakenly assume that merely labeling a mental health condition is sufficient for
understanding its complexities and causes.
What is Psychopathology? Refers to intense, frequent, and/or persistent maladaptive patterns of
emotion, cognition, and behavior (P&T)
Developmental Psychopathology: These maladaptive patterns occur in the context of typical
development and result in the current and potential impairment of infants, children, and
adolescents.
3 type of maladaptive mechanisms: Often seen as a result of unsuccessful adaptation.
, Delay: when the child develops more slowly than peers;
Fixation: where the child does not develop further and continues to show age-
inappropriate behaviour;
Deviance: in which the child develops differently from peers.
Prevalence = proportion of a population with a Incidence = the rate at which new cases arise
disorder (number off current cases). (all new cases in a given time period).
[Theoretical explanatory models]
1. Physiological models
a. These models emphasize the role of genetics, brain chemistry, neurobiology, and other
biological processes in understanding abnormal behavior.
b. These physiological models highlight the complex interplay between genetic, biological, and
environmental factors in shaping abnormal behavior and psychological disorders.
i. Example: Diathesis-stress model [a diagnostic model that proposes that a disorder may
develop when an underlying vulnerability is coupled with a precipitating event].
2. Psychodynamic models
a. These models focus on unconscious processes, childhood experiences, and intra-psychic
conflicts as underlying causes of psychological disorders.
b. Proposed by Sigmund Freud !
i. The fixation-regression model of psychopathology is a theoretical framework that explains
how psychological disorders develop and are maintained.
3. Behavioral and cognitive models
a. B= This model emphasizes the role of learning and reinforcement in the development and
maintenance of psychological disorders. It suggests that maladaptive behaviors are acquired
through conditioning processes such as classical and operant conditioning.
b. C= The cognitive model posits that psychological disorders are influenced by dysfunctional
thought patterns and cognitive distortions. It suggests that individuals' perceptions,
interpretations, and beliefs about themselves, others, and the world can contribute to
emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors.
4. Humanistic models
a. The humanistic model of psychology emphasizes the importance of individual experiences,
personal growth, and self-actualization.
b. Broaden-and-build theory = explores how positive experiences lay the groundwork for
developing well-being and resilience.
5. Family or systemic models
a. Views the family as a complex, interconnected system in which individual behaviors and
relationships are influenced by the dynamics of the family unit.
b. Dysfunction within the family system, such as poor communication patterns, role confusion,
or enmeshment, can contribute to the development and maintenance of psychological
symptoms in individual family members.
c. Consider shared Vs Non-shared environments.
,6. Neo-constructivist models: Focus on evolutionary contexts, experiential learning (such as brain-
behavior relationships), and the blend of qualitative and quantitative changes during
development.
7. Sociocultural models: Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
The microsystem refers to the immediate environments in which individuals interact directly,
such as family, school, peer groups, and community settings
The mesosystem encompasses the connections and interactions between different micro-
systems in an individual's life.
For example, the relationship between a child's family and school experiences or the
connection between home and neighborhood environments.
The exosystem includes settings or contexts in which individuals do not directly participate but
still affect their development indirectly.
This can include societal institutions such as government policies, mass media, community
organizations, and the parents' workplace environment.
The macrosystem refers to the larger cultural, societal, and ideological systems that influence
development.
The chronosystem involves the dimension of time and how changes or transitions occur over the
lifespan.
Contrasting between models:
Humanistic models of psychology emphasize human potential and conscious experiences,
viewing psychological problems as arising from thwarted natural needs, while psychodynamic
models focus on unconscious motivations and unresolved conflicts from early life as sources of
psychopathology.
Contrasting between CBT and Cognitive theories: cognitive models are theories about how our
thoughts work, while cognitive-behavioral therapy is a type of therapy that uses these theories to
help people change unhelpful thoughts, feelings, and behaviour.
Two Types of Explanatory Models:
Continuous Models [Dimensional]
Discontinuous Models [Categorical] – DSM-5
, Categorical Classification [Top-down] Dimensional Classification [Bottom-up]
Categorical classification relies on It involves collecting data from children with typical and
identifying sets of symptoms that occur atypical adaptations, then using statistical techniques to
together and are collectively best group discomforts and dysfunctions into key dimensions
understood as separate, distinct disorders of disorders.
linked by categorical models.
This approach assumes all children can be
These classifications assume that meaningfully described along these dimensions,
groups of individuals exist with emphasizing differences in degrees or quantities of a
relatively similar patterns of a disorder. dimension, rather than differences in types of
dimensions.
Early vs Contemporary psychodynamic models
Contemporary psychodynamic were "Scientific dubious" [refers to ideas, claims, or practices within
the realm of science that are questionable, lacking strong empirical evidence, or are not supported by
rigorous scientific methods]. Its focus was:
1. Unconscious processes
2. Mental representations of self, other and relationships
3. Subjective experiences
4. Origins of (a)typical personality in early childhood (developmental challenges)
Current research focused strongly on: parent–child attachment and attachment’s enduring effects on
personality and interpersonal functioning
Barriers to Mental Health Care:
1. Perceptions of mental health and child welfare (e.g., lack of confidence in the system, previous
negative experiences, stigma).
2. Perceptions of psychological problems (e.g., denial, beliefs that difficulties resolve over time)
3. Structural (e.g., long waiting lists, high personal cost)
Of children with problems, only 20% receives formal guidance and 35% support through
informal services.
[Stigma]
Dimensions of stigma: Stereotypes, devaluation, discrimination
Targets of stigma: The individual, the family
Contexts of stigma: The general public, the self/individual
Developmental Pathways:
