SUMMARY: The Study of Language (George Yule) 6th edition
Chapter: 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20
CHAPTER 1: The origins of language
- We suspect that some type of spoken language must have developed between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago
(before written language > 5000 years ago). Not sure about the origins of language, six different theories.
The Divine Source
Human language is a gift from God. In most religions there is a divine source who provided humans with language.
Young children kept apart with goat spoke a language known as the original language. Very young children kept apart
for the first years of their lives speak no language. No way of reconstructing that original language. (i.e. the events in
babel in the bible.)
CHAPTER 2: Animals and human language
The Natural Sound Source
The human auditory system is already functioning before birth (around 7 months).
The “Bow-Wow” Theory > when different objects flew by, making a caw-caw or coo-coo sound, the baby tried to
imitate the sounds and then used them to refer to those objects even when not present. Other examples in English:
splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, screech, bow-wow.
Onomatopeia: Words that sound similar to the noises they describe.
The “Pooh-Pooh” Theory > speech developed from the instinctive sounds people make in emotional circumstances.
Think about natural cries of emotion such as pain, anger and joy. Examples: Ouch!, Ah!, Ooh!, Phew!, Wow!, Yuck.
(We inhale when using these words – opposite of ordinary talk.)
The Social Interaction Source
The “Yo-he-ho” Theory > sounds of a person involved in physical effort could be the source of our language. It places
the development of human language in a social context. Examples > grunts and curses. Doesn’t reveal the origins of
the sounds produced. Apes and other primates live in social groups and use grunts and social calls, but haven’t
developed the capacity of speech.
The Physical Adaptation Source
Looking at the physical features humans possess that may have supported speech production, we find various
examples: - Our ancestors made a major transition to an upright posture > this changed how we breathe.
- The reconstructed vocal tract of a Neanderthal man suggests that some consonant-like sound distinctions were
possible.
- Around 35,000 years ago we find features in fossilized skeleton structures that resemble those of modern humans.
● Human teeth are upright > helpful in making sounds such as f or v.
● Lips have much more intricate muscle interlacing + flexibility > helpful in making sounds
like p, b and m.
● The human mouth is relatively small compared to other primates + can be opened/closed
rapidly. Also part of an extended vocal tract that has more of an L-shape.
● Humans have a shorter, thicker and more muscular tongue > used to shape a wide variety of
sounds inside the oral cavity. Humans can close off the airway through the nose to create more air pressure.
● The human larynx (or “voice box”) differs in position from the larynx of other primates such as monkeys.
● The pharynx > a longer cavity above the larynx which acts as a resonator for increased range and clarity of
the sounds produced via the larynx.
The Tool-Making Source
We evolved so our functions of teeth and lips became no longer for chewing and sucking. We learned how to make
tools which indicated our brain developing.
The human brain is not only large relative to human body size, it is also lateralized. > It has specialized functions in
each of the 2 hemispheres. It may be that there was an evolutionary connection between the language-using and
,tool-using abilities of humans and that both were involved in the development of the speaking brain.
The Genetic Source
At birth, the baby’s brain is only a quarter of its eventual weight and the larynx much higher in the throat allowing
babies like chimpanzees to breathe and drink at the same time.
It seems that human offspring are born with a special capacity for language. It is innate , no other creature seems to
have it.
The innateness hypothesis > seems to point to something in human genetics, possibly a crucial mutation or two.
You learn a language anyway, it is generally equipped.
Communication
Communicative signals
Informative signals > someone listening to you may become informed about you through a number of signals that
you have not intentionally sent. Example: 1. You sneeze. Someone notices that you have a cold. 2. You have a strange
accent. Someone notices you’re from somewhere else.
Glossolalia (“speaking in tongues”) > producing sounds and syllables in a stream of speech that appear to have no
communicative purpose. > Associated with religious practices of Pentecostal churches.
Distinctions (onderscheiden) between human language and animal communication > intentional communication.
6 Properties of Human Language
Reflexivity > To be able to reflect on language and its uses. Example: “I wish he wouldn’t use so many technical
terms.” This way we can use language to think and talk about language itself.
Displacement > To be able to refer to past and future time. It allows language users to talk about things not present
in the immediate environment in contrast to animals who can only “GRRR” about the now.
*Exception with bees > round dance for nearby nectar and tail-wagging dance for further away.
Arbitrariness > The relationship between words and objects. We can’t look at a word and understand from its shape
what the meaning is. We can make words “fit” the concept they indicate >
For the majority of animal signals there eappears to be a clear connection between the conveyed message and the
signal used to convey it. > The set of signals consists of a limited set of vocal/gestural forms.
Cultural transmission > The process whereby a language is passed on from one generation to the next. It’s not
genetically inherited, a child needs a particular language-using environment.
Productivity (or “creativity”/”open-endedness”) > The potential number of utterances (uitingen) in any human language
is infinite. Fixed reference > the lack of productivity in animal communication.
Duality (or “double articulation”) > The fact that human language is organized at two levels simultaneously.
One level > the distinct sounds (n, b, i). Another level > distinct meanings. (bin)
With animals each communicative signal appears to be a single fixed form that cannot be broken down into separate
parts.
Using language
Chimpanzees that were used in studies showed us that they were capable of taking part in interaction with humans
by using a symbol system chosen by humans.
, CHAPTER 5: Word Formation
Term Meaning Example
Neologism We can very quickly understand a new word Electric suction sweeper > spangler >
and accept the use of different forms of that spanglerism, spanglering, spanglered.
new word in the language. Hoover > vacuum cleaner
Etymology The study of the origin and history of a word. [Latin] uni- > uni-cycle
[Greek] mono- > mono-cycle
[Germanic] one- > one-wheeled-cycle
Borrowing The taking over of words from other languages. dope (Dutch), piano (Italian), jewel
(French), sofa (Arabic), pretzel (German)
Loan-translation / When there is a direct translation of the [French term] grate-ciel which literally
calque elements of a word into the borrowing translates as “scrape-sky”, the Dutch
language. wolkenkrabber (“cloud scratcher”) >
English: skyscraper.
Compounding The joining of two separate words to produce a [English] nouns: bookcase, doorknob,
single form. (Very common in German+English, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook,
less in French+Spanish.) wallpaper. Compound adjectives: good-
looking, low-paid.
Blending The combination of two separate forms to To talk about the combined effect of
produce a single new term. We take only the smoke and fog, we use > smog.
beginning of one word and join it to the end of breakfast + lunch > brunch
the other word. information + entertainment > infotainment
Clipping The element of reduction that is noticeable in Facsimile > fax fanatic > fan
blending. When a word of more than one gasoline > gas influenza > flu
syllable is reduced to a shorter form. advertisement > ad
Hypocorisms A particular type of reduction, favored in in Moving pictures > movie
Australian and British English where a longer Television > telly
word is reduced to a single syllable, then -y or - Australian > Aussie
ie is added to the end. Toasted sandwich > toastie
Backformation A word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced First there was the noun: television. Then
to form a word of another type (usually a verb). the verb: televise.
*If a noun ends in -er (or something close in Donation -> donate. Emotion -> emote.
sound), we can create a verb for what that *Work -> worker. Edit -> editor. Babysit -
noun-er does. > babysitter.
Conversion A change in the function of a word, as for Noun: chair. Used as verb: Someone has
example when a noun comes to be used as a to chair the meeting.
verb (without any reduction). They’re vacationing in Florida.
Or verbs becoming nouns. It will remain a guess.
Verb combination. He’s just a wannabe.
Coinage The invention and general use of totally new Nylon, Vaseline, zipper, granola, kleenex.
terms. (trade names for commercial products) Googleplex > Google > google.
Eponyms New words based on the name of a person or a Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt > teddy bear
place.
Acronym New words formed from the initial letters of a CD > compact disk. NATO, NASA,
set of other words. UNESCO. Laser, scuba, zip, ATM, PIN.
Derivation A large number of small “bits” of the English Un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, -less, - ish, -ism, -
language that are not usually given separate ness.
listings in dictionaries. These small bits are Unhappy, joyful, careless, terrorism.
described as affixes.
Prefixes The affixes added to the beginning of the word. Un-, mis-
Suffixes The affixes added to the end of the word. -less, -ish (2: foolishness)
Infixes The affix that is incorporated inside another Hallebloodylujah!, Absogoddamlutely!,
word. (Not normally used in English.) Unfuckinbelievable.
