Very extensive summary of all the articles of the course: Rejecting minorities: an interdisciplinary perspective on intergroup relations, now called: Understanding Prejudice. Passed the course with an 9.5/10 for the exam. Summary of all the articles of week 1-8:
- Taylor & Moghaddam: theories of i...
Week 1: Social Identity Theory
Taylor & Moghaddam: theories of intergroup relations: international social psychology
perspective (3,5)
General information
Scope: SIT is concerned with all aspects of relations between groups, especially groups having
unequal power. The theory tries to predict the conditions in which people will feel motivated
(individually/collectively) to maintain or change their group membership and their intergroup
situation.
Assumptions: individuals are motivated to maintain or achieve a positive self-identity (belonging
to groups that enjoy high status)
Proposition
People make social comparisons between their own group and other groups in order to
determine if their group gives them a distinct and positive social identity
A negative social identity causes dissatisfaction
Dissatisfaction will lead to attempts to change the intergroup situation only where
cognitive alternative are perceived (the intergroup situation is perceived as unstable or
unjust)
Where such conditions are met, group members will take individual or collective
actions in order to improve their social identity
The social identity theory
Explain intergroup relations from a group perspective. Subjective perspective identify to be part of
a group instead of being objective a group member.
(mostly a psychological theory) social identity/ social comparison/ psychological distinctiveness
Definition social identity (Tajfel): that part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from his
knowledge of his membership of a social group(s) together with the value and emotional significance
attached to that membership.
Assumption of the theory: people strive for a positive social identity → individuals make social
comparisons between groups to achieve a favorable and distinct position for their own group.
The categorization of nonsocial stimuli
The categorization process has the function of organizing in fundamental ways the information we
acquire from the environment. People actively select information from the environment and simplify
the task of processing it by ignoring certain dissimilarities and giving priority to, or exaggerating,
certain similarities between objects. This process orients and assist out actions.
There are certain features that objects should have in order to fit into our category of “objects that cn
serve the purposes of a hammer”.
The experiment
In his experiment there were three groups (who all saw the same eight lines)
1. Four shortest lines were labelled A, four longest lines were labelled B
2. All the lines were randomly assigned A or B
3. No labels at all
Participants have to estimate the length of each line.
The outcome: people in group 1 exaggerated the differences in lengths between categories A and B
more than those in the 2 control groups + they labelled the lines in the categories more similar than
other 2 groups.
The experiments’ results; Tajfel developed the idea that categorization of non-social stimuli leads to
perceived uniformity within individual categories and distinctiveness between them.
1
,The categorization of social stimuli
Important factors when categorizing social stimuli:
A system of norms and values; you describe certain values to certain people, and you can
categorize them by these norms and values. Values and norms influence their choices.
1. The subject may identify with the people he/she is categorizing, your own status becomes affected
by the choices you make. You do not place ‘negatively seen/bad people’ into the group you
identify with. When this identification takes place, there seems to be a tendency to try to achieve
intergroup distinctiveness
Minimal group experiment
There is an intergroup situation (two categories) but there aren’t any other conditions that are
usually associated with intergroup conflict
There are two stages in the experiment
o Stage 1: social categorization takes place on a trivial criterion and unidentified others
o Stage 2: people have to allocate reward to these others, some of whom are in the same category
as themselves
There are six criteria:
o No face-to-face interaction between subjects (in in-group/out-group or between groups)
o Complete anonymity of group membership
o No instrumental/rational link between the criteria for intergroup categorization and the rewards
subjects would allocate to in-group and out-group members
o Rewards have no utilitarian value for the subject making them
o Subjects should get a number of different options in terms of how they allocate rewards to in-
group and out-group members:
Fairness (F): equal rewards to in/out-group members
Maximum joint profit (MJP): maximum payoff for both in/out-group members
Maximum in-group profit (MIP): in-group member receives highest reward possible,
independent of what out-group member receives
Maximum difference in favor of the in-group (MD): difference between rewards in-group
and out-group is greatest in favour of the in-group member
o Rewards should be made as important as possible, so a real decision about distribution of
concrete rewards
First Minimal Group Experiment: dot-estimation task.
Condition 1 (neutral): told that people consistently overestimate in dot-estimation tasks, while others
tend to underestimate number of dots.
Condition 2 (value): told that some people are more, and some less, accurate at dot-estimation.
Hypothesis: greater in-group favoritism would occur in the value than in the neutral condition.
The findings of the minimal group experiment were that people favor their in-group and chose MD of
MIP strategies most of the time. The researchers concluded that social categorization per se can be a
sufficient basis for intergroup discrimination.
Furthermore, it seemed that when subjects had the change to act in terms of group membership, they
developed some level of loyalty to their in-group. The majority group tended to be more
discriminating than the minority or members of ‘equal power groups’. The ‘absolute power group’
showed less discrimination than the ‘high power group’.
The concepts of the social identity theory
There are four central concepts in the social identity theory:
1. Social categorization: the segmentation of the world so as to impose an order on the environment
and provide a locus of identification for the self
2. Social identity: the part of the individual’s self-concept which derives from knowledge of his
membership in a social group, together with the value and emotional significance to that
membership
2
, 3. Social comparison: the process through which characteristics of the in-group are compared to
those of the out-group
4. Psychological group distinctiveness: the state desired by individuals in which the in-group had an
identity that is perceived by group members as being both distinct a positive vis-à-vis relevant
comparison groups most innovative and important contribution made by SIT to social
psychology
(For social categorization see minimal group experiments)
Social identity
Two main features:
1. Group membership is viewed from the subjective perception of the individual
2. The value-laden nature of group membership is highlighted and given importance
The knowledge that one belongs to a certain group and the value attached to group membership
represents the individual’s social identity (this can be both positive and negative).
Groups have social values and the members acquire certain values through group membership.
Misidentification: people are defining their own group membership in a way that does not correspond
to the material realities of the group situation, with the aim of being part of the high-status out-group.
People desire to be positively evaluated (positive social identity). They make a favorable evaluation of
themselves instead of an accurate one. They want to be a member of a positively evaluated group.
The desire for a positive social identity is the motor behind the individual’s actions in the intergroup
context.
Social comparison
Social comparison is a process by which an individual obtains an assessment of his group’s social
position and status. This evaluation takes place to reduce uncertainty and achieve accuracy in self-
evaluation. People achieve an understanding of the relative status and value of their own group and the
status and value they themselves acquire through their membership.
Psychological group distinctiveness
Group members will desire to achieve an identity for their group that is both distinct from, and
positive in comparison with, other groups.
The process of competition and innovation leads to greater diversification of life-styles and to the
creation of new ‘vacant spaces’.
Groups feel the need to find vacant identities for themselves to occupy à achieve a positive and
distinct identity compared to other groups.
MODEL P. 77 (11)!!!
Change will be desired by individuals whose group membership provides them with inadequate social
identity.
“Inadequate” = either a negative social identity or a social identity that is not s positive as one with
which the individual is satisfied. For example, members of disadvantaged or minority groups.
The importance of cognitive alternatives
In order to achieve a strategy of social change a group must be aware of cognitive alternatives.
Meaning that people only act when they think change is possible.
There are two factors necessary for cognitive alternatives to be perceived:
1. The extent to which individuals believe the present intergroup situation can be changed/another
hierarchy is possible (stability or instability)
2. The extent to which the present intergroup situation and hierarchy are seen as just and fair
(legitimacy or illegitimacy)
3
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