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alle benodigde hoofdstukken van bachelor jaar 2, samengevat uit het boek abnormal Child and adolescent Psychology.
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Ontwikkelingspsychopathologie boekHoofdstuk 1
The criteria for abnormality are primarily based on how a person is acting or what a person is
saying and only rarely include a specific known marker for disorder.
Abnormality, or psychopathology, is viewed as interfering with adaptation, that is, with
individuals fitting the circumstances of their lives.
psychopathology hinders or prevents the young person from negotiating developmental
tasks, whether acquiring language skills, emotional control or satisfactory social relationships.
Judgments about behavior rely on developmental norms, which describe the typical rates of
growth, sequences of growth and forms of physical skills, language, cognition, emotion and
social behavior.
The term culture encompasses the idea that groups of people are organized in specific ways,
live in specific environmental niches, and share specific attitudes, beliefs, values, practices
and behavioral standards.
cultural analyses describe the many ways in which cultures shape normal and abnormal
development and also conceptualize, explain and treat psychopathology.
Cultural norms have broad influence on expectations, judgments and beliefs about the
behavior of youth.
Ethnicity denotes common customs, values, language or traits that are associated with
national origin or geographic area.
Race, a distinction based on physical characteristics, can also be associated with shared
customs, values and the like.
Ethnic or racial groups embedded within a heterogeneous society may show different rates of
psychopathology, express psychopathology somewhat differently and hold beliefs and
standards different from those of the dominant cultural group.
Expectations based on gender also contribute to defining problem behavior
gender norms significantly influence development; they affect emotions, behavior,
opportunities and choices.
men are expected to be more aggressive while females are expected to be more passive
these gender stereotypes play a role in judgments about normality.
Judgments of deviance or normality of behavior also take into account situational norms –
what is expected in specific settings or social situations (no running in the library)
“psychopathology cannot simply be defined as an entity carried around within a person. It is
most appropriately viewed as a judgment that a person’s behavior, emotion, or thinking is
atypical, dysfunctional and harmful in some way – a judgment involving knowledge about
development, cultural and ethnic influences, social norms and the people making the
judgment.”
,Knowing the usual age of onset of a problem can point to etiology very early occurrence
suggests genetic and/or prenatal etiology, whereas later onset directs attention to additional
developmental influences
knowing the typical age of onset also serves as a guide to judging the severity or outcome
of a disorder; cases that occur especially early are likely to be more severe.
The rates of psychopathology vary depending on several factors estimates are generally in
the 13 to 22% range for US children and adolescents. Prevalence in preschoolers appears
similar, and interest in infant mental health has increased.
Males are particularly vulnerable to neurodevelopmental disorders that occur early in life,
whereas females are more vulnerable to emotional problems and eating disorders that more
commonly are seen at adolescence
Although methodological factors, including biased clinical samples, probably account in part
for reported gender differences, numerous biological and psychosocial factors underlie true
gender differences.
Demonology; the belief that behavior results from a person’s being possessed or otherwise
influenced by evil spirits or demons.
Somatogenesis; the belief that mental disorder can be attributed to bodily malfunction or
imbalance
In the beginning of the twentieth century, several developments began to fundamentally alter
how children and adolescents were viewed
one of these developments was the rise of psychoanalytic theory and its associated
treatment, psychoanalysis.
Freud became convinced that unconscious childhood conflicts and crises were the keys to
understanding behavior
he proposed three structures of the mind whose goals and tasks made conflict inevitable;
the id, ego and superego.
The psychoanalytic perspective rests on a psychosexual stage theory of development. As the
child develops, the focus of psychological energy passes from one bodily zone to the next,
leading the child through five fixed stages; oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital.
Watson introduced behaviorism he emphasized that most behavior, adaptive of
maladaptive, could be explained by learning experiences
Law of effect (Thorndike) states that behavior is shaped by its consequences. If the
consequence is satisfying, the behavior will be strengthened in the future; if the consequence
is unpleasant, the behavior will be weakened.
Approaches that emphasize the combination of learning principles and the social context
and/or cognition are referred to as social learning/cognitive behavioral perspectives.
The mental hygiene movement aimed to increase understanding, improve treatment, and
prevent disorder from occurring at all.
, in part, because childhood experiences were viewed as influencing adult mental health,
children became the focus of attention in the child guidance movement.
Efforts by a mental health worker to create a therapeutic alliance with the client – that is, to
forge a trusting personal bond a collaboration on treatment – may increase the chance of a
successful outcome.
The current study and practice of the psychopathology of youth is shaped both by past and
more recent efforts. Emphasis is given to;
- Multiple causation
- The relation between normal and abnormal behavior
- Scientific approaches
- Effective treatment and prevention
- Advocacy
Hoofdstuk 2
When a perspective is shared by investigators, it may be termed a paradigm paradigms
typically include assumptions and concepts, as well as ways to evaluate these.
A theory is a formal, integrated set of principles or propositions that explains phenomena.
theories provide formal propositions that can be tested, thereby advancing knowledge
In addition to having a theory to guide the study of psychopathology, it is often helpful to
employ a model – a representation or description – of the phenomenon of study.
At the heart of interactional models is the assumption that variables interrelate to produce an
outcome
one such approach, the vulnerability-stress model, conceptualizes the multiple causes of
psychopathology as the working together of a vulnerability factor and a stress factor.
In this model, both vulnerability and stress are necessary.
Transactional models are widely employed in the study of both normal and abnormal
development.
the basic assumption is that development is the result of ongoing, reciprocal transactions
between the individual and the environmental context.
the individual is viewed as an active agent who brings a history of past experience that has
shaped her or his current functioning. The environmental context is viewed as variables that
are close to or farther from the person.
Transactional models fall into the domain of systems models in that they incorporate several
levels, or systems, of functioning in which development is viewed as occurring over time as
the systems interact or enter into ongoing transactions with each other.
Developmental psychopathology perspective; this perspective integrates the understanding
and study of normal developmental processes with those of child and adolescent
psychopathology.
it is interested in the origins and developmental course of disordered behavior, as well as
individual adaptation and competence.
, Developmental psychology focused on understanding universal principles of how people
grow and change during their lifetime
Clinical psychology/psychiatry identifying the symptoms of psychological disorders,
understanding the causes of disorders and alleviating the difficulties.
Development refers to change over time resulting from transactions of an individual with
biological, psychological and sociocultural factors. Early development follows general course
and proceeds in a coherent pattern.
Medical model this model considers disorders to be discrete entities – things, if you will-
that result from specific and limited biological causes within the individual.
In conceptualizing causation, it is useful to distinguish between direct and indirect causes
- Direct effect; variable X leads straight to the outcome
- Indirect effect; when variable X influences one or more other variables that, in turn,
lead to the outcome.
Moderator; a variable that influences the direction or the strength of the relationship between
an independent variable and a dependent variable
In examining causation, it is also useful to make a distinction among necessary, sufficient, and
contributing causes.
- Necessary cause; must be present in order for the disorder to occur
- Sufficient cause; can, in and of itself, be responsible for the disorder.
- Contributing cause; these are not necessary or sufficient. In some disorders, several
factors may contribute by adding or multiplying their effects to reach a threshold to
produce the problem.
Equifinality; refers to the fact that diverse factors can be associated with the same outcome
children can have different experiences but still develop the same problem.
Multifinality; refers to the fact that an experience may function differently depending on a
host of other influences that may lead to different outcomes.
children can have the same experiences and end up with different problems or no
difficulties at all.
Risks are variables that precede and increase the chance of psychological impairments.
Resilience is defined by relatively positive outcome in the face of significantly adverse or
traumatic experiences resilience speaks to individual differences in response to risk, in the
ability to resist or overcome life’s adversities.
it can also be defined in terms of competence regarding the developmental tasks, or
cultural age-expectations, applied to young people.
Advances in the understanding of resilience are immensely important to the prevention of
psychopathology and to optimizing the development of youth.
In considering whether or not a disorder continues over time, investigators have recognized
that the expression of a problem may change in form with development; that is, heterotypic
continuity may occur.
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