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Samenvatting Organizational Behaviour and Work, ISBN: 9780198777137 Introduction To Business Administration (MAN-BCU341)
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- Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen (RU)
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Summary Organizational behaviour and workChapter 1 Setting Scene
The scene-setting information that you need, as a manager, depends on the kind of organization in
which you are employed. Globalization is an area in which management has had a large part to play.
Many people work in globalized companies, or for companies that source their goods or services
globally, and organizations are affected by the global context.
The term globalization was originally used to describe the gradual connection between different
societies. It’s a term to describe the global circulation of goods, services and capital: information,
ideas and people. Some scholars make the mistake of equating large organizations with
globalization.
Globalization is a strong contested concept – one reason being that there is no consensus as to its
meaning and significance, and another the debate over the desirability of effects. There is also
debate on the extent to which globalization is occurring. Another debate concerns the generation of
greater inequalities. Sociologists are concerned that national and regional cultures may be
submerged within a common global capitalist culture and that globalization will increase existing
inequalities, as well as the pace of growth of individualism.
It is important to ensure that the gains from globalization are more broadly shared across the
population. There is a need for behaviours that help to reduce levels of poverty.
One of the dark sides of globalization has been human trafficking – that is, the supply of human
beings for prostitution, sweat shop labour, street begging, domestic work, marriage, adoption,
agricultural work, construction, armed conflicts and other forms of exploitative labour of services.
Although slavery is illegal in every country in the modern world, it still exists.
The focus of corporate social responsibility (CSR) is more on the reporting process than on
outcomes of organizational behaviour. Also, there is little if any empirical evidence that suggest
organizations benefit from having a good record on human rights or that they will become
economically disadvantaged if they do not.
With globalization has come a growth with interest in the enterprise economy. Entrepreneurship
had been at the centre of economic and industrial policy across many of the Organisations for
Economic Cooperation and Development countries since 1890. While the importance of new firms to
economic growth and competitiveness has been widely recognized, and the encouragement of
enterprise has been central to the economic strategies of successive governments, the success of
the ‘enterprise economy’ depends on the flow of individuals who are willing and able to start up a
business. Entrepreneurship is seen as a set of behaviours linked to masculinity.
Trends in the working population:
Age: the population is projected to become gradually older. As the population ages, the
numbers in the oldest age groups will increase the fastest. There have been some alarmist
projections of demographic ‘time bombs’ - including the pensions crisis – arising from the
combination of an ageing population and declining fertility. The definition of ‘older worker’
varies with the industry, occupation and gender: for example, women reporting
experiencing age discrimination or being considered too old for employment at earlier ages
than men. employers think that older workers are less productive and have less relevant
skills. They think that they are resistant to change and to training, and can be inflexible.
, Disability: disabled people have lower employment rates and higher unemployment rates
than people who are not disabled. These people are more likely to experience unfair
treatment at work than not disabled people. The problem is not the disabled themselves,
but rather the ‘disabling world’; society must change for the better to facilitate the
participation of disabled people more fairly.
Employability: employability in the context of graduates may be defined as a set of
achievements – skills, understandings, and personal attributes – that makes graduates more
likely to gain employment and be successful in their chosen occupations.
Unemployment
Race, religion and ethnicity - ‘race’ refers to socially defined differences based on physical
characteristics, culture and historical domination and oppression, justified by entrenched
beliefs. ‘ethnicity’ may accompany race or stand alone as a basis for inequality. While we like
to believe that racial discrimination is a thing of the past, racial inequalities undeniably
persist. The relative position for ethnic minorities does not appear to have improves since
the 1970s.
The pay gap continues to widen between the rich and the poor. Workers in the worst-paid jobs have
seen their pay fall sharply in real terms, while executive pay has risen sharply. Relative social
mobility – that is, the relative changes of people from different social backgrounds moving into a
given social class – has remained fairly stable for most of the century. The UK and the USA have the
lowest levels of cross-generational mobility among developed countries, lying well below those of
Canada and the Nordic countries. Higher education is one way of achieving social mobility. One of
lack of social mobility may be the cost of education.
The fulltime gender pay gap between women and men is 14,9 per cent. The pay gab varies across
sectors and regions, rising up to 55 per cent in the finance sector. Women are more likely to be
employed in low-paid, part-time work. All women, regardless of ethno-religious group, experience
large pay penalties. One of the reasons for inequality is job segregation. Jobs tend to be seen as
either ‘male’ or ‘female’ jobs.
Although global data show that women continue to increase their share of managerial positions, the
rate of progress is slow and uneven. Women hold few of the top managerial jobs: the higher the
organizational level, the more glaring the gender gap. The major barrier to women’s progress in
management continues to be the gender stereotyping of the managerial position, which is viewed as
intrinsically ‘male’.
Evidence shows that if you work consistently long hours, over 45 hours a week every week, it will
damage your health.
Part-time working has increased worldwide for the past two decades. It is mainly found in
restaurants, hotels and retail establishments, and other sectors of the ‘leisure’ industry. Currently
more than one-quarter of the workforce work part-time. Many believe that part-time work offers
flexibility and choice – particularly in terms of time that can be spent with family. Part-time jobs
tend, however, to represent lower skill levels, wage rates, and promotion prospects than those that
are full-time. Many women working part-time is working below their potential; it has also been
found that women are increasingly dissatisfied with poor-quality part-time work.
Working from home is a global phenomenon. Those who have jobs where they are only employed
to work at home, doing manual work, are often some of the poorest workers. Ethnic minorities have
been shown to be over-represented among those working at home in manual occupations.
,Key points
Scene-setting issues – that is, context issues – may include a consideration of questions such
as who is employed (including gender, parental responsibilities, age, race etc), on what
terms, and how organizations contribute or act to increate equality or to prevent or counter
inequality for individuals or groups in society.
Prejudice and discrimination are common behaviours in organizations
Managing might mean exploiting labour; more positively, it might mean heling to grow the
economy through the development of new enterprise.
The scene-setting information, or knowledge, that is required will depend on the kind of
organization in which you are involved, employed or interested. You need to decide what
kinds of facts and behaviours you want to consider as relevant.
Chapter 2 Employees’ view of work
Max Weber argued that alienation is a state or a feeling in which the job is external to the individual.
It results primarily from lack of autonomy at work. This has implications for the individuals learning,
because, over time, work alienation is established in the minds of employees in a continuing
sequence of conditions. Karl Marc and Braverman identify structural conditions and technologies as
generating alienation in the workplace. Work alienation occurs when employees perceive that the
work environment is personally detrimental to their needs, values and sense of well-being.
Some writers would argue that workers such as assembly line workers, and those who have jobs that
can be described as a ‘drudge’, are being exploited and alienated It is not only factories that we find
dehumanized work or alienated workers. Call centres have been described as ‘dark satanic mills’ the
‘new sweatshops’ or ‘battery phone farms’. To counter the negative effects of the drudge, workers
are known to find ways of making work manageable.
Burawoy (1979) central question was: ‘why do workers work as hard as they do?’ he describes a
series of games that the operators played in order to achieve levels of production that earned
incentive pays. Th rules of the game were experienced as a set of externally imposed relationships,
like informal alliances. The art of ‘making out’ (that is, maximizing bonus pay in a piece-rate system)
was to manipulate those relationships, to a worker’s best advantage. the game is entered into for its
‘relative satisfactions’; the satisfaction of that need reproduces consent from both managers and
workers, as well as material wealth. But Burawoy has described the games that workers play as a
way of creating space outside managerial surveillance.
Bourgeoise is defined as a member of the middle-class.
Embourgeoisement is defined as the process of moving up to middle-class.
Goldthorpe et al (1668; 1969) questioned the assumption that the political and social habits of the
working class become more middle-class with rising affluence. Affluence was achieved at a price:
that of accepting work that affords little in the way of intrinsic rewards, such as job observation, but
enough money to stay. Although the workers’ orientation to work was found to be instrumental and
they became more affluent, a major finding of the study was that there was no process of
embourgeoisement in terms of political behaviour. This theory was not without critics. They
contended that orientations have a ‘fixed’ quality: they are not necessarily responsive to contextual
organizational factors and orientation to work can explain much. Daniel (1969) argued that the
, explanations of choice of job, behaviour in a job, and leaving a job are likely to be different, that is
should not be assumed that orientations to work are fairly stable over time and in different context.
There are other reasons for working than just the money: use your skills, feeling of worth sense of
dignity. These are aspects of a job over which a manager may have control. Others say they work for
‘expressive’ reasons - that is, intrinsic rewards, such as sense of enjoyment, satisfaction and sense of
achievement.
Maintaining dignity at work is something that workers from all walks of life struggle to achieve.
Dignity can be achieved through taking pride in productive accomplishments, even if those
accomplishments may be modest by someone else’s standards. Without dignity work can become
unbearable: employees can find themselves confronting abusive conditions and a chaotic,
mismanaged workplace, chronic overwork and exhaustion. Each of these conditions presents
challenges to working with dignity and shows how dignity is attained at defended. Dignity is, then,
about self-command and autonomy, and is crucial for people’s well-being.
Measuring what constitutes meaningful work is a complex task. Job satisfaction is one measure, but
there are other indicators. The experience of creativity can contribute significantly to meaning and
dignity at work. The ability to take pride in work is a core foundation for meaningful work.
Job redesign meant any attempt to alter jobs with the intention of increasing the quality of work
experience and productivity. Typically, changes involved providing employees with additional
responsibilities for planning, setting up, checking their own work, making decisions about methods
and procedures, establishing their own work pace, and sometimes relating directly with the client
who sees the result of their work.
Hackman and Oldham (1975) developed the job diagnostic survey (JDS). The theory underlying the
tool was that experienced meaningfulness of work is enhanced by skill variety, task identity and task
significance. They claimed that the JDS gauged the ‘objective characteristics of the job themselves’.
There were some serious problems with the measures of job characteristics. The job characteristics
that were measured had been derived from a search of literature, reflective thinking, and by trial
and error. Alan Fox (1973) argued that job redesign did not address the principles of hierarchical
rewards or the possibility to increase in intrinsic reward at the cost of efficiency. It could therefore
be described as a management control device; instead of bringing fundamental change, job redesign
only addressed marginal issues, while the legitimacy of prevailing power structures and current
business frameworks remained constant. Fireman (1996) says that the managers implementing job
redesign presented their employees as ‘emotionally anorexic’: while employees may feel
dissatisfaction and satisfaction, be alienated or stressed, and have preferences, attitudes, and
interests, these were noted only as variables for managerial control. Managers had no wish to forfeit
control and there were limits to what they could ‘sensibly’, in their views, do.
When looking at class, gender and the meaning of work, the jobs at which we have looked have
been low-skilled. Those in the lowest classes are more likely to be unskilled and low-paid work.
Barbara Ehrenreich (2001) also investigated the jobs that we usually describe as ‘unskilled’ or ‘low-
skilled’; job such as a waitress, hotel maid, house cleaner, nursing home aid, etc. She argues that the
work requires feats of stamina, focus, memory, quick thinking and fast learning. She combats the
‘too lazy to work’ and a ‘job will defeat poverty’ ideals held by many middle-class and upper-class
citizens, arguing that hard work in these low-skilled jobs fails to live up to its reputation as the ticket
out of poverty. Work for these people trapped in these types of employment does not mean
‘betterment’ or social mobility.
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