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Summary Cognition and Behaviour Participation exams 2 University Utrecht
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Summary of partial exam 2 of Cognition and Behaviour
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Cognitie en Gedrag samenvatting deeltentamen 2 (boek: 'Brain and Cognition', Custom Edition, 4th Edition)
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Cognitie en Gedrag samenvatting deeltentamen 1 (boek: 'Brain and Cognition', Custom Edition, 4th Edition)
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Cognitie en Gedrag Samenvatting 🧠Deeltentamen 2
Chapter 8 - Everyday Memory and Memory Errors
- Memories are created by a process of construction, which is based on what actually
happened, combined with other things that have happened and our general
knowledge about how things usually happen.
Autobiographical Memory
Autobiographical Memories (AM)= (can include both episodic and semantic components) are
multidimensional (they consist of spatial, emotional and sensory components). We
remember some events better than others; transition points in people’s lives appear to be
particularly memorable.
Reminiscence Bump= the enhanced memory for adolescents and young adulthood
Self-Image Hypothesis= memory is enhanced for events that occur as a person’s self-image
or life identity is being formed.
Cognitive Hypothesis= periods of rapid change that are followed by stability cause stronger
encoding of memories.
Cultural Life script hypothesis= distinguishes between a person’s life story (all of the events
that occured in a person’s life) and a cultural life script (record of culturally expected events
that occur at a particular time).
Memory for ‘Exceptional’ Events
Amygdala= activity in the amygdala is higher for successfully retrieved emotional pictures
than for neutral pictures. Emotion confirmed by greater amygdala activation, enhances the
recollection-related activity in the hippocampus. Stress hormone activation that occurs
subsequent to arousing emotional experiences enhances memory consolidation in humans.
Weapon Focus= narrowing of attention caused by emotions. The tendency to focus on a
weapon during the commission of a crime, missing details of the perpetrator’s face.
Emotions decrease peripheral details.
Flashbulb Memories= vivid and long-lasting memories. They occur under highly emotional
circumstances, memory for the circumstances surrounding how a person heard about an
event, not the memory for the event itself. There is no difference in accuracy between
everyday memories and flashbulb memories.
Repeated Recall= the technique of comparing later memories to memories collected
immediately after the event is called.
- Emotions enhance our ability to remember but do not enhance our memory for
details of what happened.
Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis= we remember events because we rehearse them after
they occur.
,The Constructive Nature of Memory
Constructive Nature of Memory= what people report as memories are constructed based on
what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the person’s knowledge,
experiences and expectations (reconstruction).
Repeated Reproduction= the same participants tried to remember the story at longer and
longer intervals after they first read it. Similar to the repeated call technique.
Source Monitoring= the process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge or
beliefs.
Source Monitoring Error / Source Misattribution= appointing the wrong source.
Cryptomnesia= unconscious plagiarism of the work of others.
Pragmatic Inference= occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something
that is not explicitly stated or implied by the sentence. Based on knowledge gained through
experience.
Schema= person’s knowledge about some aspect of the environment.
Von Restorff Effect= the finding that distinctiveness or (un)expectancy aids memory. Correct
recall is the highest for schema-inconsistent items.
Script= our conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular
experience.
Critical Lure= word associated with the presented information, false memory.
DRM paradigm (Deese Roediger McDermott)= procedure to study false memory in humans.
Memory Can be Modified or Created by Suggestion
Misinformation Effect= a person’s memory for an event is modified by things that happen
after the event has occurred.
Misleading Postevent Information (MPI)= information presented after a person witnesses an
event that can change how the person describes that event later.
Retroactive Interference= information is forgotten when more recent learning (like
misinformation) interferes with memory for something that actually happened in the past.
False memories can be created by suggestion.
Why do People make Errors in Eyewitness Testimony?
Eyewitness Testimony= testimony by a person who was present at the crime about what
they saw during commission of the crime. They have to have seen the crime clearly and they
need to be able to remember their observations and translate them into an accurate
description of what happened and the perpetrator’s identification.
Weapon Focus Effect= the observation that the presence of a weapon impairs eyewitness
recall for the details of the crime scene, including the perpetrator’s face.
Orienting Response= drawing your attention to a very ‘informative’ aspect of the
environment.
Post-Identification Feedback Effect= increase in confidence due to confirming feedback after
making an identification. Suggestion must be avoided.
- Improving lineup procedures: make the witness aware the perpetrator may not be
there, use ‘fillers’ who look like the suspect, present the people sequentially, the
person who presents the lineup should not know who the perpetrator is.
- Improving interviews: don’t make suggestions, use an interview procedure called
Cognitive Interview= based on what is known about memory retrieval. This involves
, letting the witness talk with a minimum of interruption. A technique that let’s
witnesses rebuild the situation and place themselves back in the scene.
Something to Consider
- We sometimes incorporate post-event material in our original memories → we are
able to update our knowledge with the latest information.
- The use of schema’s creates biased or even false memories → we are able to
organize and compress our knowledge.
- We have poor memory for the source of an experience.
Chapter 12.3 - Learning, Memory and Intelligence
Storing Information in the Nervous System
Hebbian Synapse= one that can increase its effectiveness as a result of simultaneous
activity in the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
Habituation= a decrease in response to a repeated stimulus that is accompanied by no
change in other stimuli (a sudden noise might startle you, but you respond less after
repeated presentations).
Sensitization= an increase in response to mild stimuli as a result of exposure to more intense
stimuli. If you experience an unexpected, intense pain, you temporarily react more strongly
than usual to other sudden stimuli. Strong stimulation excites an facilitating interneuron that
releases serotonin onto the presynaptic terminals. Serotonin blocks potassium channels,
prolongs the action potential, prolongs release of neurotransmitters, producing an increased
response.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)= one or more axons connected to a dendrite bombard it with a
rapid series of stimuli, leaving some of the synapses potentiated for minutes, days or weeks.
3 properties that make it an attractive candidate for a cellular basis of learning and memory:
1. Specificity: if some synapses have been highly active and others have not, only the
active ones become strengthened. A failure of specificity is one cause of impaired
learning.
2. Cooperativity: nearly simultaneous stimulation by two or more axons produces LTP
more strongly than does repeated stimulation by just one axon.
3. Associativity= pairing a strong input with a weak input enhances later response to the
weak input.
Long-Term Depression= a prolonged decrease in response at a synapse, occurs for axons
that have been less active than others.
- As one synaps strengthens, another one weakens. If learning produced only
strengthening of synapses, then every time you learnt something, your brain would
get more active, constantly burning more and more fuel.
LTP depends mostly on changes at glutamate receptors, two types of glutamate receptors:
AMPA receptor= excited by the neurotransmitter glutamate, but can also respond to a drug.
Typical ionotropic receptor that opens sodium channels.
NMDA receptor= also excited by the neurotransmitter glutamate, but can also respond to a
drug. Ionotropic receptor, response to glutamate depends on the degree of polarization
across the membrane. Magnesium ions block the ion channels during resting potential.
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