Chapter 10 definitions
Cognition – internal mental processes including information processing,
thinking, reasoning, and problem solving.
Concepts – an organised principle derived from experience.
Phenotype – a representation of a category formed by averaging all members
of the category.
Exemplar – a specific member of a category used represent the category.
Problem – a situation in which a current state is separated from an ideal state
by obstacles.
Problem solving – the use of information to meet a specific goal.
Functional fixedness – a possible barrier to successful problem solving in
which a concept is considered only in its most typical form.
Heuristic – a shortcut to problem solving; also known as a rule of thumb.
Availability heuristic – the rule of thumb in which the frequency of an events
occurrence is predicted by the ease with which the event is brought to mind.
Representative heuristic – a rule of thumb in which stimuli similar to a
prototype are believed to be more likely than stimuli that are dissimilar to a
prototype.
Recognition heuristic – a rule of thumb in which a higher value is placed on
the more easily recognised alternative.
Affect heuristic – a rule of thumb in which we choose between alternative
based on emotional of ‘gut’ reaction to stimuli.
Language – a system for communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary
signals.
Phoneme – a speech sound.
Morpheme – the smallest component of speech that carries meaning.
Aphasia – the loss of the ability to speak or understand language.
Intelligence – the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to
the environment, learn from experience, engage in reasoning, and overcome
obstacles.
Intelligence quotient (IQ) – a measure of individual intelligence relative to a
statistically normal curve.
General intelligence – a measure of an individual’s overall intelligence as
opposed to specific abilities.
Fluid intelligence – the ability to think logically without the need to use
learned knowledge.
Crystallized intelligence – the ability to think logically using specific learned
knowledge.
Intellectual disability – a condition diagnosed in individuals with the IQ scores
below 70 and poor adaptive behaviours; also known as mental retardation.
Giftedness – an extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130
or above (Cacioppo & Freberg, 2019).
, Psychology study notes
Chapter 11
Development Concepts
Development: the physical, cognitive, emotional and social changes that correlate
with maturation.
The relationship between physical, cognitive, and social and emotional development (LO2, p. 409 –
bottom right)
Physical development
- E.g. the ability to move around, to pick things up, to point, to touch a hot stove…
Cognitive development
E.g. the ability to solve problems and understand the world around him/her
Social and emotional development
E.g. interaction with other people, managing emotions in order to motivate himself or deal
with disappointments
Nature vs. Nurture
Prenatal development – most chemical tags that influence gene expression come from within the
developing organism, with some influence from the mother’s diet and stress hormones
After birth – internal signals remain important, but the role of diet, social interactions and physical
activity start to play a greater role
The older one gets, the more chemical tags accumulate, and the more nurture plays a role
Continuous vs. Discontinuous
Continuity – Gradual changes e.g growing teeth
Discontinuity – Discrete stages e.g water glass example. Tall glass = more
Some features seem more continuous in their development, while others seem more discontinuous
Gradual development of temperament into later personality?
The relatively sudden ability to walk
Universal vs. Ecological
Universal approach – these psychologists look for age-related behaviours that are found across the
entire human species
E.g. The average age of learning to walk is about 10 – 18 months
Ecological approach – these psychologists acknowledge the impact of culture and environment on
development
E.g. In Kenya the use of swaddling is more limited and children are encouraged to walk from
an early age. As a result, many children start walking at between 7 and 11 months
,Major changes in the prenatal stage
Zygote (Weeks 1-2)
The fertilised egg
Week 1: forms 3 germ layers
Ectoderm (nerve tissue & skin)
Mesoderm (muscle & bone)
Endoderm (soft tissue, like certain organs)
Week 2: • Completes journey to the uterus
Embryo (Weeks 3-8)
By week 4: CNS differentiated into forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain, & spinal cord
Heart, stomach, liver & other organs are formed
Differentiation between male and female sex organs begins
Foetus (Weeks 9-birth)
At 9 weeks the foetus is about 1 inch long
It weighs about 1 gram
It looks human
Week 9-birth
Growth & maturation of existing systems
By month 7 most brain cells have developed
Hearing and taste
Will recognise their mother’s voice when born
Will prefer certain foods eaten by mother when pregnant
(Birth occurs at about 40 weeks
Major risks in the prenatal stage
Genetic risks:
These are rare
Age plays a role – e.g. Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
What is down syndrome and how does it occur?
Down syndrome is a chromosome disorder that happens when a cell division mistake results
in an additional 21 chromosome (Medical News Today, 2017). There is a nucleus in each and
every cell within the human body where genetic material is stored in genes. Genes are
responsible for all of our hereditary characteristics and are grouped along rod-like structures
called chromosomes (National down Syndrome Society, 2019). Typically, twenty-three pairs
of chromosomes are inherited from each parent in the nucleus of each cell. Down syndrome
happens when there is a complete or partial copy of chromosome 21 in a person (National
down Syndrome Society, 2019).
, Environmental risks:
The placenta provides protection from many environmental risks, BUT certain things can negatively
impact prenatal development:
Teratogens: a chemical agents that can harm the zygote, embryo and fetus
Drugs (over-the-counter, prescribed and recreational)
Viruses (HIV, Varicella)
- HIV can be passed to the child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding
- Medication, avoidance of breastfeeding and caesarian sections reduce risk of HIV
Chemical exposure
Diet:
Folic acid is necessary for development of the spinal cord (spinach, eggs, chickpeas)
DHA, an omega 3 fatty acid, is necessary for development of the brain and retina (breast
milk, oily fish, BUT many oily fish contain teratogens such as mercury)
Supplements of Vitamin D, calcium and iron are required by many pregnant women
Teratogens: Over-the-counter and recreational drugs (table on page 415)
