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Summary CMY3706 Summarised Study Notes
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- University Of South Africa (Unisa)
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CMY3706NOTES
,Theme 1: Incidence of violent crime
SU 1.1: Violent Crime
Introduction to the incidence of violent crime
• Violent crime creates a sense of fear and helplessness, as well as the perception that crime is out of control
and that the state is unable to deal with the problem.
• Violent crime leads to emigration, which negatively affects the economy.
• Violent crime may give rise to vigilante action and politically inspired violence.
• According to the Department of Correctional Services (DCS), violent and aggressive crimes and behaviour are
on the increase in SA (2008).
• The SA offender population has reached an all-time high for violent and aggressive crime.
General definition of violent crime
• Any type of crime where the use of threat or violence exists (homicide, assault, sexual assault, robbery,
kidnapping). Also any offence resulting in death, regardless of intent, where serious injury was intentionally
caused/attempted.
• In SA, violent crimes include those crimes where the following elements are present: threat of or the actual
injury/death of a person, threat or use of force and violence, use or threat of a weapon. Examples: murder,
attempted murder, assault (common and GBH), robbery (common and GBH), rape, indecent assault, arson,
kidnapping and abduction, malicious damage to property, car and truck hijackings.
Problems with comparisons of crime in different countries
It is difficult to compare violent crime in different countries due to the following reasons:
• Definitions and legislation differ from one country to the next.
• Law enforcement differs considerably with regard to competence.
• Not all offences are detected by the police.
• Different countries have different methods of reporting offences. Developed countries have a higher reporting
rate.
• Different countries have different methods of compiling crime statistics, and vary in precision. Some also
deliberately conceal statistics.
• There is great variability in how statistics are processed. Different data may also be used.
• Sophistication of crime recording systems varies from country to country.
• Not all countries handle crime statistics with the same degree of honesty and integrity.
• Only about half the countries in the world report their crime statistics to Interpol.
• Police statistics reflect the crimes reported to or detected by the police, and therefore cover only a part of
the total number of offences actually committed.
Note that developing countries have a large juvenile population, and are therefore more prone to violent crime.
International crime trends
• South Africa has a higher murder rate (2007-2008) than the USA. The USA, however, has a much higher rate of
aggravated assault.
• Australia has a much lower reported incidence of violent and aggressive crimes.
• Almost all crimes increased in 2005-2006, except for kidnapping.
• England and Wales (2006-2007) had a general increase in robbery, vandalism, and drug offences, and a decrease
in homicide, sexual offences, violence against the person, serious wounding, kidnapping, and aggravated
vehicle taking.
• In England and Wales, people gave the following reasons for not reporting crime (2006/2007):
, o Trivial; no loss; police would/could not do anything
o Private/dealt with ourselves
o Inconvenient to report
o Reported to other authorities
o Common occurrence
o Fear of reprisal
o Dislike or fear of the police/previous bad experience with police/courts.
South African crime trends
• The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) 2007 victimisation survey show an increase in respondents who believe
that greed was the motive for violent crimes.
• Compared to the period 2006-2007, in 2007-2008 all crime categories showed a decrease, except for an increase
in car and truck hijacking and aggravated robbery (business and residential premises).
• For 2007-2008, Gauteng had the highest reported incidences of car and truck hijackings, robbery (aggravating),
and attempted murder.
• For 2007-2008, KwaZulu-Natal had the highest reported incidence for murder, followed by Gauteng, and then
the Eastern Cape.
Sexual Crimes
• The Criminal Law (Sexual Offences and Related Matters) Amendment Act 32 of 2007 deals with sexually
motivated crimes in SA.
• An analysis of sexually motivated crimes shows a decline in rape and indecent assault during 2006-2007 in
South Africa.
• Gauteng had the highest incidence of rape from April to December 2007, followed by KwaZulu-Natal, then
thirdly Eastern Cape. Northern Cape has the lowest incidence of rape and indecent assault.
• Adolescent males commit 20-30% of all rapes, and 30-50% of all child molestations. A large number of pre-
adolescent girls are reported to be sexually aggressive toward other children.
• Victims of pre-adolescent offenders are generally very young (4-7 years old), most often are female (when
the offender is male), and typically are siblings, friends, or acquaintances.
Factors contributing to violent crime
• The period of transition. Crime tends to increase during political transitions, which are characterised by
instability and violence.
• A violent past. Apartheid and “the struggle” resulted in a society in which the use of violence to achieve
political and personal goals became widespread.
• A culture of violence. During apartheid, mass removals and institutional violence resulted in a weakening of
the family unit – parents lost control over their children. The “people’s war” and apartheid bred a culture of
violent lawlessness, distrust of authority, and “murderous intolerance”. Solving problems and conflicts through
violence has long been a central part of SA culture (a “culture of violence”), and this is mirrored in our schools.
• Rapid urbanisation. Worldwide, crime rates are higher in cities than in rural areas. Population density leads to
competition for limited resources, which contributes to greater stress an increased conflict. Overcrowding,
unemployment, high levels of gang activities, and easy availability of firearms contribute to violent crimes.
With the abolition of influx control in the 1980s, SA experienced rapid urbanisation. Illegal immigrants add to
the problem. Large squatter camps develop quickly, and are difficult to police. Living in a shack also means
that children are exposed to adult sexual activities, which they then imitate with other children. In urban areas,
the family system is sometimes replaced by a peer group system, which may be extravagant and create more
needs. Prolonged unemployment may lead to family tension and lack of basic commodities, leading people to
resort to crime, exploitation of children, drug abuse, and negative self-image. Relative deprivation also leads
to increased crime.
, • Vigilantism. When people fear crime and lose confidence in law enforcement structures, they take matters
into their own hands, which leads to more crime.
• HIV/AIDS. SA has very high infection levels of HIV/AIDS. Limpopo has the most infections of all the provinces.
Many children are orphaned, and child-headed households are common. This affects the socialisation of
children. Many children are also raped due to the false belief that intercourse with a virgin/uninfected person
cures HIV/AIDS.
• Conditions conducive to the growth of organised crime. A number of crime syndicates may be responsible for
the increase of armed robbery, assault, and hijackings in SA. Conditions conducive to the growth of organised
crime include: the availability of resources attractive to organised criminals (diamonds, drugs, etc.); the
existence of markets for contraband goods; poorly patrolled borders; opportunities for money laundering; and
the sophisticated and well-developed communication and transport network with its internal links (internet,
air travel).
• A weak criminal justice system. A swift and functional CJS can help to deter potential offenders. SA’s CJS is
not performing optimally at present. Fewer than 9% of recorded crimes result in conviction.
• Dysfunctional families and parents. Single-parent homes, broken homes, and conflict-ridden homes are more
likely to produce violent and aggressive, antisocial, and delinquent children.
• The cycle of violence and abuse. Perpetrators of violent, aggressive, and abusive behaviour and actions have
themselves been the victims of family violence during childhood. Highly violent offenders were subjected to
more severe and frequent physical and psychological abuse and punitive parenting. Children in school mirror
their home environments.
• Peer group influence and associations. Adolescents are more susceptible to peer influence, and less susceptible
to parental influence. Peer influence is a strong predictor of criminality. There is also a link between peer
rejection and involvement in criminal activities. Argumentativeness, inattentiveness, aggressive behaviour,
poor social skills, and social withdrawal are linked to peer rejection.
• Socioeconomic conditions associated with violent crime. Poverty and unemployment are associated with the
increase in crime-related problems in SA. Most violent crime occurs in urban areas. Unemployment, poverty,
boredom, the need to hurt others, and seeking attention through doing crime are all linked. The highest
concentration of poverty and unemployment is in rural areas.
• Gender differences and violent crime. Boys outnumber girls for most type of crime, especially for violent crimes.
Hormonal and biological factors (incl. testosterone) may explain this difference. Physical aggression is more
prominent among males. Girls are also socialised differently, and taught not to be openly aggressive. Gender
differences in aggression are most likely in place by age 5. Parents are believed to be more coercive toward
boys. The gender gap may however be closing for some offences, such as violent and economic crime. Girls are
socialised to be more prosocial an accommodating. The media also affects this through aggression-supporting
messages. Women are more likely to perceive aggression as a breakdown of self-management strategies,
whereas men perceive it as a means of dominance and imposing control over others. In SA, females are
increasingly becoming involved in more violent and aggressive crime. Most female offenders are sentenced for
aggressive crimes, followed by economic and thirdly narcotic-related crimes. South African juvenile offenders
also seem to be increasingly involved in violent and aggressive behaviour, followed by economic then sexual
crimes. Regarding the total SA offender population, the majority of offenders (adult males and females and
juvenile and youth offenders) are serving sentences for “aggressive” crimes, followed by “economic” crimes
and thirdly “sexual” crimes.
• Other factors related to violent crime:
o A growth in brutality and intolerance
o The availability of illegal firearms and trained manpower (such as ex-combatants)
o Higher levels of security (i.e. Steering wheel locks, gear locks, alarm systems, etc.)
o A growth in organised crime syndicates and greed
o Increased reporting of these crimes as a result of increased emphasis on individual rights
o Media focus on these crimes
o The establishment of special and more user-friendly police units
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