Summary
Psychology 324 Summary
- Institution
- Stellenbosch University (SUN)
In-depth summary of all work covered in Psychology 324
[Show more]
Content preview
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGYChapter 1
Introducing Social Psychology
What Is Social Psychology?
Social psychology is ‘the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings and behaviours of individuals
are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of others.’
• Social psychologists are interested in explaining human behaviour and generally do not study animals. As
a rule, social psychologists believe that the study of animals does not take us very far in explaining human
social behaviour, unless we are interested in evolutionary origins.
• Social psychologists study behaviour because behaviour can be observed and measured.
• Behaviour refers not only to obvious motor activities (such as running, kissing and driving) but also to
more subtle actions such as a raised eyebrow, a quizzical smile or how we dress, and, critically important
in human behaviour, what we say and what we write. In this sense, behaviour is publicly verifiable.
• Behaviour also serves a communicative function.
• Social psychologists are also interested in feelings, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, intentions and goals. These
are not directly observable but can, with varying degrees of confidence, be inferred from behaviour and
may influence or even determine behaviour. Unobservable processes are also the psychological dimension
of behaviour, as they occur within the human brain.
• Social psychologists almost always map psychological aspects of behaviour onto fundamental cognitive
processes and structures in the human mind and sometimes to neuro-chemical processes in the brain.
• Social psychology is closely related to a number of disciplines and sub-disciplines. What distinguishes it
from other disciplines, however, is that it deals with how people are affected by other people who are
physically present (e.g. an audience) or who are imagined to be present (e.g. anticipating performing in
front of an audience), or even whose presence is implied.
• Social psychology uses the scientific method to construct and test theories. The scientific method dictates
that no theory is ‘true’ simply because it is logical and seems to make sense. On the contrary, the validity
of a theory is based on its correspondence with fact. Social psychologists construct theories from data and/
or previous theories and then conduct empirical research.
• Social psychologists study an enormous range of topics, including conformity, persuasion, power,
influence, obedience, prejudice, prejudice reduction, discrimination, stereotyping, bargaining, sexism and
racism, small groups, social categories, intergroup relations, crowd behaviour, social conflict and harmony,
social change, overcrowding, stress, the physical environment, decision making, the jury, leadership,
communication, language, speech, attitudes, impression formation, impression management, self-
presentation, identity, the self, culture, emotion, attraction, friendship, the family, love, romance, sex,
violence, aggression, altruism and prosocial behaviour.
• What makes social psychology distinct from other psychological disciplines that study similar topics is a
combination of what it studies, how it studies it and what level of explanation is sought.
Research Methods: the Scientific Method
Social psychology employs the scientific method to study social behaviour. This involves the formulation of
hypotheses (predictions) on the basis of prior knowledge, speculation and casual or systematic observation.
Hypotheses are formally stated predictions about what may cause something to occur; they are stated in such
a way that they can be tested empirically to see if they are true. For example, we might hypothesise that
ballet dancers perform better in front of an audience than when dancing alone. This hypothesis can be tested
empirically by measuring and comparing their performance alone and in front of an audience.
Empirical tests can falsify hypotheses (causing the investigator to reject the hypothesis, revise it or test it in
some other way) but not prove them. If a hypothesis is supported, confidence in its veracity increases and
one may generate more finely tuned hypotheses. Thus, an important feature of the scientific method is
replication: it guards against the possibility that a finding is tied to the circumstances in which a test was
conducted.
1
,As a science, social psychology has at its disposal an array of different methods for conducting empirical
tests of hypotheses. There are two broad types of method, experimental and non-experimental: each has
advantages and limitations. The choice of an appropriate method is determined by the nature of the
hypothesis under investigation, the resources available for doing the research (e.g. time, money, research
participants) and the ethics of the method. Confidence in the validity of a hypothesis is enhanced if the
hypothesis has been confirmed a number of times by different research teams using different methods.
Methodological pluralism helps to minimise the possibility that the finding is an artefact of a particular
method, and replication by different research teams helps to avoid confirmation bias, which occurs when
researchers become so personally involved in their own theories that they lose objectivity in interpreting
data.
E xp er im ent al M et hods :
An experiment is a hypothesis test in which something is done to see its effect on something else.
Experimentation involves intervention in the form of manipulation of one or more independent variables,
and then measurement of the effect of the treatment (manipulation) on one or more focal dependent
variables.
- Independent variables are dimensions that the researcher hypothesises will have an effect and that can be
varied.
- Dependent variables are dimensions that the researcher hypothesises will vary as a consequence of
varying the independent variable. Variation in the dependent variable is dependent on variation in the
independent variable.
It is critically important in experiments to avoid confounding: the conditions must be identical in all respects
except for those represented by the manipulated independent variable. Most social psychology experiments/
theories test an independent variable against two or more dependent variables.
1. Laboratory Experiments
The classic social psychology experiment is conducted in a laboratory in order to control as many
potentially confounding variables as possible. The aim is to isolate and manipulate a single aspect of a
variable, an aspect that may not normally occur in isolation outside the laboratory. Laboratory
experiments are intended to create artificial conditions. Although a social psychology laboratory may
contain computers, wires and flashing lights, or even medical equipment and sophisticated brain imaging
technology, often it is simply a room contain- ing tables and chairs.
Laboratory experiments allow us to establish cause–effect relationships between variables. However,
laboratory experiments have a number of drawbacks. Because experimental conditions are artificial and
highly controlled, particularly social neuroscience experiments, laboratory findings cannot be generalised
directly to the less ‘pure’ conditions that exist in the ‘real’ world outside the laboratory. However,
laboratory findings address theories about human social behaviour, and, on the basis of laboratory
experimentation, we can generalise these theories to apply to conditions other than those in the laboratory.
Laboratory experiments are intentionally low on external validity or mundane realism (i.e. how similar
the conditions are to those usually encountered by participants in the real world) but should always be
high on internal validity or experimental realism (i.e. the manipulations must be full of psychological
impact and meaning for the participants).
Laboratory experiments are susceptible to a range of biases including:
a) subject effects (participants behaviour is an artefact of the experiment rather than a spontaneous and
natural response to a manipulation). Artefacts can be minimised by carefully avoiding demand
characteristics, evaluation apprehension and social desirability. Demand characteristics are features
of the experiment that seem to ‘demand’ a particular response: they give information about the
hypothesis and inform helpful and compliant participants about how to react to confirm the
hypothesis.
b) experimenter effects (experimenter may inadvertently communicate cues that cause participants to
behave in a way that confirms the hypothesis). This can be minimised by a double-blind procedure,
in which the experimenter is unaware of which experimental condition they are running.
2
, Since the 1960s, laboratory experiments have tended to rely on psychology undergraduates as participants
because they are readily available in large numbers to come to a physical laboratory on campus. Critics
have often complained that this over-reliance on a particular type of participant may produce a somewhat
distorted view of social behaviour – one that is not easily generalised to other sectors of the population. In
their defence, experimental social psychologists point out that theories, not experimental findings, are
generalised, and that replication and methodological pluralism ensures that social psychology is about
people, not just about psychology students.
2. Field Experiments
Social psychology experiments can be conducted in more naturalistic settings outside the laboratory. Field
experiments have high external validity and, as participants are usually completely unaware that an
experiment is taking place, are not reactive (i.e. no demand characteristics are present). However, there is
less control over extraneous variables, random assignment is sometimes difficult, and it can be difficult to
obtain accurate measurements or measurements of subjective feelings (generally, overt behaviour is all
that can be measured).
Non-experimental Methods:
In some circumstances it is simply impossible to conduct an experiment to test a hypothesis. For instance,
hypotheses about the effects on self-esteem of being a victim of violent crime are not easily tested
experimentally– we would not be able to assign participants randomly to two conditions and then subject one
group to a violent crime and see what happened.
Where experimentation is not possible or appropriate, social psychologists have a range of non-experimental
methods from which to choose. Because these methods do not involve the manipulation of independent
variables against a background of random assignment to condition, it is almost impossible to draw reliable
causal conclusions. We can only conclude that there is a correlation between variables. In general, non-
experimental methods involve the examination of correlation between naturally occurring variables and as
such do not permit us to draw causal conclusions.
1. Archival Research
Archival research is a non-experimental method that is useful for investigating large-scale, widely
occurring phenomena that may be remote in time. The researcher assembles data collected by others,
often for reasons unconnected with those of the researcher.
Archival methods are often used to make comparisons between different cultures or nations regarding
things such as suicide, mental health or child-rearing strategies. Archival research is not reactive, but it
can be unreliable because the researcher usually has no control over the primary data collection, which
might be biased or unreliable in other ways (e.g. missing vital data). The researcher has to make do with
whatever is there.
2. Case Studies
The case study allows an in-depth analysis of a single case (either a person or a group) or a single event.
Case studies often employ an array of data collection and analysis techniques involving structured, open-
ended interviews and questionnaires and the observation of behaviour. Case studies are well suited to the
examination of unusual or rare phenomena that could not be created in the laboratory: for instance,
bizarre cults, mass murderers or disasters. Case studies are useful as a source of hypotheses, but findings
may suffer from researcher or subject bias, and findings may not easily be generalised to other cases or
events.
3. Qualitative research and discourse analysis
A range of non-experimental methodologies analyse largely naturally occurring behaviour in great detail.
Discourse analysis draws on literary criticism and the notion that language is a performance and is often
grounded in a generally critical orientation towards mainstream social psychology. Discourse analysis is
both a language-based and communication-based methodology and approach to social psychology that
has proven particularly useful in a number of areas, including the study of prejudice.
3
, 4. Survey Research
Surveys can involve structured interviews, in which the researcher asks participants a number of carefully
chosen questions and notes the responses, or a questionnaire, in which participants write their own
responses to written questions. In either case the questions can be open-ended (i.e. respondents can give
as much or as little detail in their answers as they wish) or closed-ended (where there is a limited number
of predetermined responses, such as circling a number on a nine-point scale).
Surveys can be used to obtain a large amount of data from a large sample of participants; hence
generalisation is often not a problem. However, like case studies and qualitative methods, this method is
subject to experimenter bias, subject bias and evaluation apprehension. Anonymous and confidential
questionnaires may minimise experimenter bias, evaluation apprehension and some subject biases, but
demand characteristics may remain. In addition, poorly constructed questionnaires may obtain biased data
due to ‘response set’ – that is, the tendency for some respondents to agree unthinkingly with statements or
to choose mid- range or extreme responses.
5. Field Studies
Field studies involve the observation, recording and coding of behaviour as it occurs. Most often, the
observer is non-intrusive by not participating in the behaviour, and ‘invisible’ by not influencing the
ongoing behaviour. Sometimes ‘invisibility’ is impossible, so the opposite strategy can be used – the
researcher becomes a full participant in the behaviour. Field studies are excellent for investigating
spontaneously occurring behaviour in its natural context but are particularly prone to experimenter bias,
lack of objectivity, poor generalisability and distortions due to the impact of the researcher on the
behaviour under investigation.
Data and Analysis
Research provides data, which are analysed to draw conclusions about whether hypotheses are supported.
The type of analysis undertaken depends on at least:
• The type of data obtained – for example, binary responses such as ‘yes’ versus ‘no’, continuous variables
such as temperature or response latency, rank ordering of choices and open-ended written responses (text).
• The method used to obtain data – for example, controlled experiment, open-ended interview, participant
observation, archival search.
• The purposes of the research – for example, to describe in depth a specific case, to establish differences
between two groups of participants exposed to different treatments, to investigate the correlation between
two or more naturally occurring variables.
Data are obtained as, or are transformed into, numbers (i.e. quantities), and these numbers are then compared
in various formalised ways (i.e. by statistics). The decision about whether the difference between groups is
psychologically significant depends on its statistical significance— an effect is statistically significant if
statistics reveal that it, or a larger effect, is unlikely to occur by chance more often than 1 in 20 times.
The other major method of data analysis used by social psychologists is correlation, which assesses whether
the co-occurrence of two or more variables is significant. If there seems to be no systematic relationship
between the two variables, then they are uncorrelated – there is zero correlation. A statistic can be calculated
to represent correlation numerically: for instance, the statistical measure known as Pearson’s r varies from −1
for a perfect negative to +1 for a perfect positive correlation.
Research Ethics
To guide researchers, the American Psychological Association established a set of ethical principles for
conducting research involving humans. Researchers design their studies with these guidelines in mind and
then obtain official approval from a university or departmental research ethics committee. Five ethical
principles in particular have received the most attention: protection from harm, right to privacy, deception,
informed consent and debriefing.
4
The benefits of buying summaries with Stuvia:
Guaranteed quality through customer reviews
Stuvia customers have reviewed more than 700,000 summaries. This how you know that you are buying the best documents.
Quick and easy check-out
You can quickly pay through EFT, credit card or Stuvia-credit for the summaries. There is no membership needed.
Focus on what matters
Your fellow students write the study notes themselves, which is why the documents are always reliable and up-to-date. This ensures you quickly get to the core!
Frequently asked questions
What do I get when I buy this document?
You get a PDF, available immediately after your purchase. The purchased document is accessible anytime, anywhere and indefinitely through your profile.
Satisfaction guarantee: how does it work?
Our satisfaction guarantee ensures that you always find a study document that suits you well. You fill out a form, and our customer service team takes care of the rest.
Who am I buying this summary from?
Stuvia is a marketplace, so you are not buying this document from us, but from seller laylamoolla. Stuvia facilitates payment to the seller.
Will I be stuck with a subscription?
No, you only buy this summary for R150,00. You're not tied to anything after your purchase.
Can Stuvia be trusted?
4.6 stars on Google & Trustpilot (+1000 reviews)
53022 documents were sold in the last 30 days
Founded in 2010, the go-to place to buy summaries for 14 years now