ethnography: a descriptive approach to research that focuses on life within a group and tries to understand the
meaning of events to the people involved
participant observation: a method for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a
participant in the situation in order to better understand life in that group
case study: intensive study of one person or one situation
correlations: statistical descriptions of how closely two variables are related
o positive correlation – a relationship between two variable in which the two increase or decrease
together, e.g. calorie intake and weight gain
o negative correlation – a relationship between two variables in which a high value in one is associated
with a low value on the other, e.g. height and distance from top of head to the ceiling
experimentation: research method in which variables are manipulated and the effects recorded
participants: people or animals studied (subjects)
random: without any definite pattern; following no rule; each participant has an equal chance of being in any
group
statistically significant: not likely to be a chance occurrence
psychosocial development: the relation of the individual's emotional needs to the social environment; the
emergence of the self, the search for identity; the individual's relationship with others and the role of culture
throughout life
developmental crisis: a specific conflict whose resolution prepares the way for the next stage; a conflict between
a positive and potentially unhealthy alternative
identity: the complex answer to the question: 'Who am I?'
identity foreclosure: acceptance of parental life choices without consideration of options; commitment without
exploration – have not experimented with different identities or explored a range of options
moratorium: identity crisis; suspension of choices because of struggle; exploration with a delay in commitment
to personal and occupational choices
moral reasoning: the thinking process involved in judgements about questions of right and wrong
distributive justice: beliefs about how to divide materials or privileges among members of a group; follows a
sequence of development from equality, to merit to benevolence
moral realism: stage of development wherein children see rules as absolute
morality of cooperation: stage of development wherein children realise that people make rules and people can
change them
moral dilemmas: situations in which no choice is clearly and indisputably right
disability: the inability to do something specific such as walk or hear
intelligence: ability or abilities to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems and adapting to the world
general intelligence: a general factor in cognitive ability that is related in varying degrees to performance on all
mental tests
crystallised intelligence: ability to apply culturally approved problem-solving methods
learning disability: problem with acquisition and use of language; may show up as a difficulty with reading,
writing, reasoning, or maths
learned helplessness: the expectation, based on previous experiences with a lack of control, that all one's efforts
will lead to failure
1
, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): current term for disruptive behaviour disorders marked by
overactivity, excessive difficulty in sustaining attention, or impulsiveness
articulation disorders: any of a variety of pronunciation difficulties, such as substitution, distortion or omission
of sounds
mental retardation: significantly below-average intellectual and adaptive social behaviour – evident before age
18
cerebral palsy: condition involving a range of motor or coordination difficulties due to brain damage
spasticity: overly tight or tense muscles, characteristic of some forms of cerebral palsy
epilepsy: disorder marked by seizures and caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain
absence seizure: a seizure involving only a small part of the brain that causes a child to lose contact briefly
autism spectrum disorder: development disability significantly affecting verbal and non-verbal communication
and social interaction, generally evident before age 3 and ranging from mild to major
socio-economic status: (SES) relative standing in the society based on income, power, background, prestige
resistance culture: group values and beliefs about refusing to adopt the behaviours and attitudes of the majority
culture
tracking: assignment to different classes and academic experiences based on achievement
melting-pot: a metaphor for the absorption and assimilation of immigrants into the mainstream of society so
that ethnic differences vanish
self-reinforcement: controlling your own reinforcers
self-management: use of behavioural learning principles to change your own behaviour
vicarious reinforcement: increasing the chances that we will repeat a behaviour by observing another person
being reinforced for that behaviour
sensory memory: initial processing that transfers incoming stimuli into information so we can make sense of
them – system that holds sensory information very briefly
bottom-up processing: perceiving based on noticing separate defining features and assembling them into a
recognisable pattern
prototype: a best example or best representative of a category
automaticity: the ability to perform thoroughly learned tasks without much mental effort
phonological loop: part of working memory; a memory rehearsal system for verbal and sound information of
about 1.5 to 2 seconds
chunking: grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units
decay: the weakening and fading of memories with the passage of time
declarative knowledge: knowledge that can be declared; verbal information; facts; knowing that something is
the case
explicit memory: long-term memories that involve deliberate or conscious recall
images: representations based on the physical attributes – the appearance of information
acronym: technique for remembering by using the first letter of each work in a phrase to form a new, memorable
word
problem: any situation in which you are trying to reach some goal and must find a means to do so; has an initial
state (current situation) a goal (the desired outcome), and a path for reaching the goal (including operations or
activities that move you toward the goal)
problem solving: creating new solutions for problems
algorithm: step-by-step procedure for solving a problem; prescription for solutions
heuristics: general strategy used in attempting to solve problems
analogical thinking: heuristic in which one limits the search for solutions to situations that are similar to the one
at hand
confirmation bias: seeking information that confirms our choices and beliefs, while disconfirming evidence
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