Adapted from: F.J.W. Herbig, et al., (2011) Study Guide for CMY2602, Principles of Crime Prevention, Reduction and Control, University of South Africa, Pretoria
Principles of crime prevention, reduction and control – CMY2602
Prevention and control of crime
Key concepts
Crime prevention and control: all the measures taken by way of government policy and private initiative to prevent crime
Crime control: crime prevention measures of the criminal justice system.
Crime prevention models or approaches: deliberate plans and actions aimed at preventing or controlling crime.
Historical development of crime prevention and control
South Africa – a National Crime Prevention Plan or Strategy on 22 May I996.
Linked to the National Growth and Development Strategy Office.
Pillars:
1. The reduction of crime through effective environmental planning and design focusing on designing systems to reduce the
opportunity for crime and increase the ease of detection and identification of criminals.
2. The enhancement of community values and campaigns to educate the community aimed at changing the way
communities react to crime and violence. It involves programmes that make use of public education to facilitate
meaningful citizen participation in crime prevention.
3. Transnational crime prevention strategies for the specific purpose of crime across the borders.
4. An effective and integrated criminal justice system. It must provide a sure, clear deterrent for criminals and reduce the
risks of reoffending.
Factors crucial to successful crime prevention
1. State and community involvement.
2. A multidimensional crime prevention approach, which incorporates crime prevention models and programmes.
3. Crime prevention models and programmes based on causation theories and factors which may be operative in crime and
victimisation.
4. Attention to the uniqueness of crime patterns and causes peculiar to a country or neighbourhood.
5. Proper planning and the evaluation of crime prevention programmes (cost-effective).
Various crime prevention approaches
The social crime Socioeconomic structures or systems (e.g. families, schools) are regarded as important socialisation
prevention model structures - teach the norms and values of communities.
Shortcomings in these structures may contribute to crime.
Designed to help vulnerable groups
Eradicate poor socioeconomic conditions and inequalities.
Social crime prevention programmes include:
State policies for cleaning up urban and rural areas
labour policies - job provision
educational policies
family policies - parental guidance and family skills
youth policies - education, socialisation and leisure-time activities
health policies
drug and alcohol abuse policies
Prevents all forms of crime
Limiting Restrict the opportunities for people to become involved in crime
opportunities for Focuses mainly on potential victims, the community and environment
crime Measures, which help to limit opportunities of people becoming involved in crime, include:
effective urban and environmental planning, as well as the upgrading of squatter and problem
areas
publicity campaigns
designing buildings in such a way that access points and visibility are used to reduce opportunities
target reinforcement (e.g. burglar proofing)
the removal of targets
removing the ability to commit a crime
supervisors and security guards
CCTV
the prevention of internal crime
Prevents crimes against property, people (robbery and pick pocketing), burglary, theft from business and
public premises, shop theft, theft of and from vehicles, and vandalism
The community Crime may be prevented by making potential offenders aware of the risk of being caught in specific
based crime neighbourhoods.
prevention model (Example neighbourhood watches)
Successful in preventing crimes such as robbery; pick pocketing, burglary, crimes against property and car
,Adapted from: F.J.W. Herbig, et al., (2011) Study Guide for CMY2602, Principles of Crime Prevention, Reduction and Control, University of South Africa, Pretoria
theft.
The biophysical Biophysical factors – Inner processes or conditions that characterise human beings.
prevention model Early identification and treatment, especially in the case of problem children, may play an important part in
preventing crime.
A combination of treatment programmes is often used
The psychological Inner psychological needs and disorders that may give rise to criminal behaviour
prevention model Outcome of inner disorders, which often have their origins in early childhood.
Attention to interpersonal problems and poor communication.
Psychological treatments (also called psychotherapy or therapeutic interventions) are used:
psychological tests, such as intelligence (IQ) and personality tests
psychotherapy
reality therapy
behaviour modification therapy
crisis intervention
social casework
Integrated crime prevention models
Prevention of A number of factors are seen as contributing to the particular crime. These factors are then treated using
specific crimes appropriate crime prevention programmes.
Uses a multidimensional treatment programme
Examples of treatment programmes:
rehabilitation programmes
training in family and social skills
psychological treatment designed to deal with emotional problems
psychological treatment and the acquisition of social skills to prevent the development of problem
behaviour in children
techniques for coping with frustration
assistance with finding employment
Crime prevention Legislation, the police, the courts and the correctional services
and control by Known as crime control.
means of the Law regulates human behaviour and must be just.
criminal justice
system
Property crimes 1: shop theft and employee theft
Both shoplifting and employee theft can be regarded as forms of malicious shrinkage. Shrinkage relates to the losses that occur
while companies are producing, distributing and selling goods to consumers
Shop theft
Definition: Consumers or customers illegally taking merchandise or cash (assets) from a shop
Extent and incidence: It is difficult to determine the true extent - staff don’t always report offences.
Determinants that lead to arrest include the value of the item, whether the item was stolen in a
professional manner.
In South Africa, food retailers suffer the greatest losses, factories suffer the least losses
Common characteristics Does not contain an element of violence or threat of violence.
There is no need to gain unauthorised access
Opportunistic crime perpetrated on impulse.
Usually apprehended by staff/store security or by a member of the public.
Motives and typology Motivated by socioeconomic and/or personal factors (temptation, psychological problems,
poverty, excitement, peer pressure, the need to outsmart adults and political considerations,
greed, low self-control, unemployment, drug abuse, perceived low risk of apprehension)
Types of shoplifters:
1. The amateur steals on impulse. Desires it and intends to use the item. Easiest type to detect
since – absence of planning
2. Juveniles usually steal for the thrills and to gain status in their peer group. Rely on simplistic
methods to steal and who give away or consume that which they have stolen.
3. The professional steals for economic gain. Hardest to identify – knows how not to attract
attention. Chooses smaller items that have higher resale value. Usually involved in other
criminal behaviours. Make up a small proportion (10%) of all shoplifters.
4. The kleptomaniac, is rare and will usually steal items that hold little financial value.
Experience an urge (psychological pressure) that only decreases when the theft is over and
which is often followed by feelings of guilt. Stealing is impulsive and irrational. Items stolen
are often discarded or returned.
,Adapted from: F.J.W. Herbig, et al., (2011) Study Guide for CMY2602, Principles of Crime Prevention, Reduction and Control, University of South Africa, Pretoria
Modus Operandi Crime of concealment and distraction.
Methods of concealment: dropping items from the shelf into open bags, putting items in
handbags or baby carriages, hiding items in rolled-up newspapers, false compartments in
clothing, cutting away the lining of jacket pockets so that they can reach the shelves undetected
when placing their hands through the holes, when working in groups distract store personnel.
Items most commonly Products of higher value – resale
shoplifted relatively small in size - facilitate concealment
manufactured by a known company
great demand
Theoretical explanations Rational choice perspective
Identifies the human will as a predisposing factor in the decision to commit a crime.
Potential offenders calculate the costs and benefits of crime
The main considerations that points to a process of decision making:
1. a suitable means of escape
2. the contemplation of various tactics or means of committing the crime.
3. Stealing specifically requested items also demands definite planning
Routine activity theory(lifestyle approach) – Cohen and Felson
Related to the rational decision-making perspective
The likelihood of crime is increased by the presence of three variables;
1. motivated offender,
2. suitable targets
3. insufficient guards.
People are regarded as inherently self-centred and hedonistic; in other words, most people are
prepared to steal.
Shoplifting as consumer behaviour
Shoplifting is part of people's conduct in their role as consumers
Rational choice theories – shoplifting results from the choices and decisions made in the retail
environment, and shoplifting behaviour shares certain similarities with ``normal'' consumer
behaviour, three factors:
1. a motivated consumer (shoplifter)
2. desirable products
3. the opportunity to steal them.
Prevention Reporting cases to the police
Identification of shoplifters - Staff should be alert to shoplifters' psychological traits and patterns
of behaviour, such as excessive nervousness, aimlessly wandering up and down aisles, looking
around repeatedly, re-examining an article from time to time, and repeatedly leaving and re-
entering the store.
The layout or design of the shop
Store detectives and security guards
Technical and electronic apparatus (CCTV)
Educational campaigns
Offenders' perceptions of deterrence – the presence of security systems, item inaccessibility,
high likelihood of being detected and arrested, and the presence of staff are regarded as the
main deterrents to shop theft.
Addressing crime opportunities - shops to consider their overall security solution, instead of
trying to address isolated issues.
Employee theft
Definition: The unauthorised taking of money and/or merchandise by an employee during the course of formal
employment and is committed during the performance of duties
Extent and incidence: Difficult to determine the true extent – Is not readily reported to the police.
The majority of working people commit employee theft at some time in their lives.
one in three employees is actively involved in employee theft
the majority of employees steal once a year
nine per cent of employees steal from their employers between four and twelve times a year
employee theft is investigated by security managers more often than any other breach of
security
one in three bankruptcies may be directly attributed to or is a direct consequence of employee
theft
In South Africa, theft by employees represented 52% of crimes most commonly experienced by
enterprises.
Manufacturers were the biggest victims, followed by wholesalers, the retail non-food sector and
the retail food sector.
It seems, therefore, that companies are more reluctant to report their own staff, which might
, Adapted from: F.J.W. Herbig, et al., (2011) Study Guide for CMY2602, Principles of Crime Prevention, Reduction and Control, University of South Africa, Pretoria
influence the staff's decision to get involved in theft (fear of criminal prosecution is reduced)
Forms: The methods used to steal at the till include:
the taking of cash directly out of the cash register;
not scanning items for family, friends or colleagues;
allowing family and friends to use staff discount card;
stealing phone top- up cards;
using and deliberately accepting counterfeit money;
short-changing customers
stealing credit cards left behind by customers;
stealing gift cards and discount vouchers;
giving extra change to family and friends
stealing from backroom areas:
the consuming of stock;
taking stock out of the store by walking out of the back entrance
putting items in their personal bags and leaving as normal
hiding items until their prices are reduced and then buying them at the reduced price
Forging receipts
Hiding receipts
Pocketing loose change
Pilfering merchandise
Fictitious payroll
Over-billing expenses
Staff steal items for personal use and are part of larger theft rings or syndicates
Common characteristics There is a general trend among employees to steal from their employers.
It is not necessary to find a suitable target and to gain access
do not need to possess specific skills
Few employees who steal from employers have a long-term commitment to their employers
Motives Financial burdens
Opportunities
workers who are unhappy with their working environment or circumstances
Revenge
Inadequate remuneration
Self-enrichment
Assistance to family/friends
awareness of other employees stealing
the remoteness of being caught,
the belief that if they are caught they will not be prosecuted
young inexperienced part-time employees.
Attitudes towards theft.
Power
Emotional Instability.
Theoretical explanations Social control theory
Assumes that people are greedy and, therefore, steal as soon as the opportunity presents itself.
Theft can be controlled only by limiting the opportunities
Focus on formal and informal social structures in the workplace. Formal sanctions imposed by
management presume that theft will decrease when negative injunctions are imposed
(dismissal); positive sanctions are reserved for productivity. Tend to increase employees'
complaints about the working environment and lead to higher levels of employee theft.
Normative support refers to the standards, perceptions and values the work group has
established for itself (group norms). Employees tend to impose their own informal normative
sanctions, which, in turn, determine and regulate acceptable behaviour. Draw a clear distinction
between stock from which theft is permissible and those that may not be touched.
Employees do not steal out of need or because they are thieves by nature, but rather because
they are unhappy in their jobs or feel that they are being treated unfairly.
Prevention Personnel selection - focus on an applicant's inner qualities and characteristics. Each applicant's
background should be checked. Ask probing questions and take note when answers are
incoherent and/or ambiguous. All information on the application form should be checked.
Personnel training - bring its formal policy on employee theft and the consequences of such
actions to the attention of all employees
Creating a positive working environment
Salaries
Fairness. The firm's rules and regulations should be clearly defined and should be applied
