Foundations in Applied English
the sounds and sound patterns of the English language (phonetics and phonology)
the formation of words and the relationship among them (morphology and syntax)
ways in which the language makes meaning and is used in context (semantics, pragmatics and discourse analysis)
the mutual relationship between language and society (sociolinguistics)
What is Language?
An introduction to foundations in applied English language
An introduction to the English language.
It will familiarise you with the terms and concepts that are used to describe language in a scientific and systematic
way.
Language is an integral component of any society.
In order for us to investigate how language is used in society, we have to study varieties of language, dialects,
standards, and attitudes to language
The smallest units of analysis of language are sounds and
Then words and the words convey meanings.
Words and the meanings are governed by grammatical rules.
You may have heard that meaning depends on the context. In other words, a context or domain has ‘meaning
potential’.
That is, meaning is obtained in the context.
What are texts and domains?
Texts and domains of language use
Our main unit of analysis in language studies is a text.
Any given text occurs within a corresponding domain of language.
There are many types of texts. Likewise, there are numerous domains of language use.
By ‘text’ we mean any piece of writing/language that hangs together from the beginning to the end. It has to have
unity.
Texts do not only have to be written. They can be spoken, A text can also be visual or audio-visual.
Domain refers to social categories which locate all instances of language use in various situations or contexts.
What is language?
The following are some of the definitions that have been suggested by different scholars:
• Language is sometimes referred to as a semiotic system. This means that it is thought to be a system where
the individual elements – ‘signs’ – take their overall meaning from how they are combined with other
elements, (for example, road traffic lights).
• Language is a system of relating forms to meanings.
• Language is a set of rules, unconsciously present in the mind, which enables human beings to represent and
communicate meanings by producing audible, visible, or tactile symbols that these rules systematically relate
to those meanings.
• We use the term language to refer to the general faculty which enables human beings to engage in the verbal
exchange of information – to ‘talk’ to each other. The exchange may take place by means of speech, writing,
signing, or Braille.
In this module we view language as a system of relating forms to functions
A language as a system
Language systems have components. The most commonly cited ones are:
• Phonetics/Phonology
• Morphology
• Vocabulary
• orthography/spelling/writing
• syntax,
• semantics
Adapted from: 1. Carter, R. and Goddard, A. (2015). How to Analyse texts: A Toolkit for Students of English. Oxon: Routledge.
2. Mullany, L. and Stockwell, P. (2016). Introducing English Language: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd Edition. Oxon: Routledge.
, • pragmatics
• discourse
Language concept Meaning
Phonetics The study of speech sounds.
Phonology The study of the sound patterning system.
Lexis The study of the actual words a writer or speaker chooses to use.
Morphology The study of how words are formed.
Syntax The study of how words combine to form sentences and the rules that govern
the formations.
Orthography Writing systems
Semantics The study of meaning, how meaning is made and understood.
Pragmatics The study of the use of language in communication – i.e. sentences as used
in contexts and situations.
Discourse How language is organized beyond the sentence, i.e. in larger texts.
The text is made up of the entire language as a system.
Micro- (e.g. text) and macro- (e.g. domains or situations) aspects of language study are connected.
Adapted from: 1. Carter, R. and Goddard, A. (2015). How to Analyse texts: A Toolkit for Students of English. Oxon: Routledge.
2. Mullany, L. and Stockwell, P. (2016). Introducing English Language: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd Edition. Oxon: Routledge.
, Let’s listen to the sounds of the English Language
THE DISCREPANCY BETWEEN SPELLING AND SOUND
English spelling does not always reflect how the word is pronounced.
homophones: two words are homophones if they are pronounced the same way but differ in meaning or spelling or
both (e.g. bare and bear)
homonyms: two words are homonyms if they are pronounced or spelled the same way but have different meanings.
(e.g. bank (embankment) and bank (placewhere money is kept)).
heteronyms: two words are heteronyms if they are spelled the same way but differ in pronunciation (e.g. row (a
series of objects arranged in a line), pronounced (r), and row (a fi ght), pronounced (rou)).
homographs: two words are homographs if they are spelled the same way but
differ in meaning (e.g. tear (water from the eyes) tear (rip -apart)).
Why learn about or teach pronunciation?
(1) We want to understand the ‘science’ behind the production of these sounds:
(a) Where they are produced: The sounds /b/ and /t/ are not articulated at the same places in the mouth. To
produce /b/, we use the two lips, but when we produce /t/ we use the tongue and the alveolar ridge.
(b) How they are produced: When we make the sounds /b/ and /p/, we use the two lips but with /b/ we make a
noise and use some force, yet with /p/, we don’t make a noise and we do not use force.
(2) For those of us whose first language is not English, the study of the sounds of the English language will be
advantageous.
(3) For those of us whose first language is English, over and above just using the language, we must learn about its
form and systemic function which adds to the refinement of how we can effectively speak the language.
Essential Terminology
phonemes The symbols used (letters or alphabets)
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) The whole system. Each language draws its sounds from this international
chart.
Some symbols/sounds do not exist in the English language. For that reason (in Figure 1) we show only those sounds
applicable to the English language.
In total there is a set of:
24 consonant phoneme sounds
20 vowel phoneme sounds
FIGURE 1:
The British English only IPA
Bilabial Labio- Inter- Alveolar Palato- Palatal Velar Glottal
dental dental alveolar
Stop p b t d k g
Fricative f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h
/th/ /sh/ s - /zion/
Affricate ʧ ʤ
/ch/ /J/
Nasal m n ɳ
/ng/
Liquid l
Glide w j
Adapted from: 1. Carter, R. and Goddard, A. (2015). How to Analyse texts: A Toolkit for Students of English. Oxon: Routledge.
2. Mullany, L. and Stockwell, P. (2016). Introducing English Language: A Resource Book for Students. 2nd Edition. Oxon: Routledge.
