ENG1502 EXAM NOTES FOR
OCTOBER NOVEMBER EXAM
2022
,Unit 1: Language As A System.
A semiotic system is a set of rules that surround a method of communication for a specific group of
people including different signs and symbols. The individual signs and symbols do not carry a lot of
meaning on their own but when combined in specific order these signs or symbols (like the alphabet
letters) start making sense and meaning is added. It is the theory of signs and the analysis of systems
using signs or signals for the purpose of communication (semiotic systems). The most important semiotic
system is human language but there are other systems as well such as Morse code, traffic signals and sign
language.
To understand and appreciate a given work, the reader must be aware of:
The language in which the text is expressed; the language used by the reader;
The literary forms and/or conventions which are reflected in the text;
The particular culture within which the text was created;
The particular culture within which the reader exists;
The icon:
The simplest sign as it is a pattern that physically resembles what it stands for. For example: a picture of
your face is an icon of you, the square with a picture of a printer on your computer screen is an icon for
the print function and a picture of a cigarette with a line drawn through it is an icon that represents ‘Do
not smoke here!’
The index:
This sign is defined by a sensory feature. Something that is directly visible, audible, can be smelt or
touched that has a relationship with or points to something else. For example: dark clouds in the sky are
indexical of a storm coming, a scowling facial expression is an index of displeasure or a sounding alarm is
an index of an emergency situation.
More examples: the ‘ping’ of your microwave is a sign/signal that your food is ready; a red robot indicates
that you must stop and someone waving their hand at you is indexical of recognition and greeting.
The symbol:
A symbol can be a mark or character that represents an object, function or process. For example: the
letters on the periodic table that represent the different elements or characters in musical notation. A
symbol represents or stands for something else.
Other examples: the bald eagle as a symbol of the spirit of the American people, the cross as a symbol of
Christianity, the protea on the South African coat of arms as a symbol of the harmony of cultures and the
flowering and growth of our nation.
5 reasons to study English language and literature:
To practice the analytical thinking skills you need to be a successful student and employee.
To improve your skill at oral and written communication.
To see the interconnectedness of all areas of knowledge - how it all fits together.
To develop a global perspective by studying cultures throughout the world.
To deepen your understanding and appreciation of other's cultures and other's points of view.
Five principal reasons for the discrepancy between the written representation of many English words and
their actual pronunciation:
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, I. English orthography had several origins with different spelling conventions. For example: The
system that evolved in Wessex before the Norman Invasion of 1066 gave us such spellings as ee
for the sound in words like deed and seen. The system that was overlaid on the Old English
system by the Normans, with their French orthographic customs, gave us such spellings as queen
(for the earlier cween) and thief (for the earlier theef).A Dutch influence from Caxton, the first
English printer, who was born in England but lived in Holland for thirty years, gave us such
spellings as ghost (which replaced gost) and ghastly (which replaced gastlic). And finally, during
the Renaissance, an attempt to reform spelling along historically earlier lines gave us debt for the
earlier det or dette and salmon for the earlier samon.
II. Thus, a spelling system established several hundred years ago is still used for a language that
continues to change and develop. The initial k in knock, know, knee, and certain other words was
once pronounced, as was the gh in knight and thought, among others. As to vowels, changes in
progress when the system was developing and continuing change in pronunciation have led to
such matched spelling for mismatched pronunciations as beat/great and food/foot.
III. English is spoken differently in different countries throughout the world (and in different regions
within a single country), despite a relatively uniform standard for written orthography. Though
this orthographic uniformity certainly facilitates international communication, it also increases
the disparity between the way English is written and spoken in any given place.
IV. Words (and their meaningful subparts) alter their pronunciation depending on the adjacent
sounds and stress patterns. For example, in electric the second c represents the sound [k] as in
kiss, but in electricity it represents the sound [s] as in silly. Compare also the pronunciation of i in
senile (pronounced like the i of I'll) with its pronunciation in senility (in which it has the i of ill).
V. Spoken forms differ from one set of circumstances to another—for example, in formal and
informal situations. While some degree of such variation is incorporated into the written system
(do not/don't; was/'twas), there is relatively little tolerance for such spelling variations as gonna
('going to'), wanna ('want to'), gotcha ('got you'), and jeat yet? (did you eat yet?').
Homophones (“same” + “sound”)
Are different words that sound alike, whether or not they are spelled alike. Thus the words pair “two of a
kind,” pare “to cut off,” and pear, the fruit, are homophones because they sound exactly the same, even
though each is spelled differently. But “bear” meaning to “carry or support” and bear, the animal, are
homophones that not only sound alike but are also spelled alike.
Homographs (“same” + “writing”)
Are different words that are spelled the same but may or may not have the same pronunciation. The
homographs sound which means “noise,” sound” referring to “healthy,” and “sound”, “a body of
water,” for example, are spelled and pronounced the same way. However, words with the same spelling
but different pronunciations are also homographs. Familiar examples are the pairs row referring to a
“line” and row meaning to “fight”. Their identical spellings define them as homographs no matter how
they are said.
Homonyms (“same” + “names”)
Is, strictly speaking, either a synonym for homophones or a name for words that are at once homophones
and homographs —alike in both spelling and pronunciation—such as the two words spelled b-e-a-r and
the three spelled s-o-u-n-d.
As a practical matter, however, the terms homophone, homograph and homonym are often distinguished
from one another by the contexts in which they are found. Homophone and homograph —the first
focused on sound and the second on spelling—appear primarily in technical or academic writing, where
fine distinctions are important. The more familiar word homonym has become an all-inclusive term that
describes not only words that are both homophonic and homographic, but words that are either one or
the other. Words that sound alike, look alike, or both, can be called homonyms.
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, Unit 2: Let’s Listen To The Sound Of The English Language
Difference between: phonetics and phonology. In terms of phonetics, make sure you understand the
difference between: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and auditory phonetics.
Articulatory phonetics
Which refers to how sounds are produced using our vocal apparatus. The smallest segment of sound is
called a phoneme. Phonemes are abstract units which together form the sound system of a language. We
also looked at minimal pairs which are word pairings where there is only one sound change between
them.
Note that there is a three-part system which is used to describe consonant sounds:
Place of articulation – where does the air become obstructed in the vocal tract?
Manner of articulation – how is the air manipulated?
Is the sound voiced or voiceless?
Sound production
Describing articulators as “the specific parts of the vocal tract that are responsible for sound production.”
The articulators include our:
· Lips
· Teeth
The lips and the
· Tongue
· Alveolar ridge [the ridge in the roof of your mouth behind your front teeth]
tongue are the
· Hard palate [the hard, bony area behind your alveolar ridge] most important
· Soft palate [the soft, fleshy part behind the hard palate] articulators.
· Uvula [the back of the soft palate]
· Vocal chords
Consonants are formed when the air which comes from your lungs is obstructed somewhere by one of
your articulators. The lips and the tongue are frequently the most responsible for the obstruction which
results in a consonant sound. There is a three-part system which is used to describe consonant sounds:
· Place of articulation – where does the air become obstructed in the vocal tract?
· Manner of articulation – how is the air manipulated?
· Is the sound voiced or voiceless?
How do we know whether a sound is voiced or voiceless?
Place your fingers on either side of your neck. Say the sound /z/ as in zebra. You should be able to feel
your vocal chords vibrating – this is a voiced sound. Now say the sound /s/ as in snake. Your vocal chords
do not vibrate – this means that /s/ is a voiceless sound.
Familiarise yourself with these terms and practise the different sounds. For
example:
B ILABIAL – say the words: ball, bat, bank, pet, pot, pink, mom, money, and moan. Can you feel
the way your lips come together to create the consonant sounds?
LABIODENTAL – say the words: fish, funny, fever, very, Viking, veal. Can you feel your lower lip
touching your top teeth?
DENTAL/INTERDENTAL – say the words: then, there, this, thick, thin, thought. Can you feel the tip of
your tongue touching the back of your top teeth?
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