Summary
Summary Philosophy 144 notes
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- Stellenbosch University (SUN)
I used the lectures and PowerPoints from the whole module to compile a detailed summary of the semester. These notes are perfect for A1, A2 or even A3.
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PhilosophyIntroduction
What is philosophy?
- “The human attempt to systematically study the most fundamental structures of our
entire experience in order to arrive at beliefs that are as conceptually clear, experientially
con rmed and rationally coherent as possible.”
- If we understand where our ideas come from, we can start judging them critically
- Many of our beliefs, concepts, values and attitudes come from the Ancient Greeks, via
the Middle Ages (especially through Christianity, Judaism and Islam)
Plato and Aristotle’s importance
- Mostly interested in ethics, also in uenced science and religion
Ancient Greek philosophers and Westerner’s
- Ancient greeks were not western
- The greek ideas were also in uenced and developed by Islam and Egypt etc.
- First university was Plato’s “Academy”
- Ancient greeks also gave rise to philosophy and science as a discipline
Terminology
Epistemology: The theory of knowledge - e.g. what we know and how we know if it is true?
Metaphysics: Theory of reality e.g. What is real? What do mind and consciousness entail?
Do we have free will?
Ethics: What makes something right or wrong e.g. who decides or are there objective moral
principles?
Logic: The study of the principles of reason, what does good reasoning entail?
Social and political philosophy—what does the ideal state look like? What is the purpose of
government? When is a government legitimate? When is civil disobedience justi ed?
Philosophy of religion—is there a God? Can we prove the existence of God? What is the
relationship between faith and reason? Is there life after death?
FOCUS strategy for reading philosophy
- Facts (Where and when? What problems? Why this particular question? Who in uenced
him/her?)
- Outlook (Try to adopt the philosopher’s point of view. Why did she answer the question in
this manner? What resources did she have available?)
- Critique Which ideas are strong and which weak? Why? How can they be improved
upon?
- US Undergo Self-examination – how would you answer the question? Why? Did you
learn something from the philosopher? Why/Why not?
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, Ancient Greece
Greek philosophy beginning
- 28 may 585 BC
- Thales predicted a solar eclipse (before then mythology was the primary beliefs)
- This showed that there are natural principles unrelated to gods and beings
Myths
Myth: Attempt to explain the unfamiliar or the mysterious in terms of what is familiar and
observable
- Poets educated people through myths e.g. Homer a blind poet. They were seen as
historians, scientists and astronomers as well as educators
- Myths shaped Greek worldview
- Explained events and the origin of the universe etc.
- Followed moral guidelines relating to honour and status
- Served religious function
- Inspired by Muses (goddesses of art and literature)
- Their model is based on human beings motivations and actions. The gods are very
human-like
Homers view on the world
1. Events in the world are caused by gods e.g. Poseidon causes earthquakes
- There are random elements in the world = inexplainable occurrences (fate)
2. Humans and gods subject to fate and can’t escape it
3. Virtue: values of warrior heroes and the gods
- Excellence is the ultimate virtue = success, honour, power, wealth and security (all their
own interests)
4. Unclear about objective moral order (justice). Gods are usually self interested.
- Gods didn’t demand moral goodness but reverence (meaning they could be bribed or
attered) and people obeyed them due to fear (for their own interest)
- Zeus is the only exception because he sometimes got angry when people were immoral.
This exception will eventually be enveloped into the idea of an impersonal, universal
moral order.
Con icts with Homers worldview
1. Some events are caused by purposeful gods and sometimes even humans. But some
events are random and purposeless
2. Both humans and gods are subject to fate. But sometimes gods denounce humans for
not acting morally (Zeus)
- This leads to the start of Greek philosophy and science
- The idea of fate later led to the idea that there are natural laws independent of human or
divine will
New way of thinking
- Philosophy grew from mythology
- Thales realised solar eclipse is a regular, natural process, predictable and generalisable
- He is seen as the founder of the school of natural philosophy and Greek astronomy
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, - He was probably in uenced by mathematics of Egyptians and astronomy of the
Babylonians
- Origin of science and philosophy has conclusions which stand or fall on their own merits
- There’s a search for universal principles and rationally defensible theories
Periods in classical Greek philosophy
1. Cosmological - characteristics of nature and reality
2. Anthropological - Human-centred issues
3. Systematic - Comprehensive philosophical system
4. Post-Artistotelian - Individualistic and practical
The Milesian Philosophers
1. Thales - Water
- The problem of the one and the many. His question is about how all di erent components
of the world have the same natural laws and unity - his answer is water.
- Reasons according to Aristotle: everything needs water, water has solid, liquid and gas
form & everything contains water.
- Material monism: only 1 principle of explanation = material / physical
- Rational approach: gives reasons and doesn’t rely on authority and traditions
2. Anaximander - Apeiron
- Fire and water are opposites
- Water itself needs to be explained
- Therefore fundamental reality can’t have principles
- Apeiron: boundless, inde nite, unde nable mass that makes reality
- Problem of change: Opposite characteristics form out of Apeiron which spins e.g. hot
and cold, dry and wet
- Forms the world but also in con ict with one another
- This interaction is the source of change
- Signi cance: moves to the abstract mode of thought and realises the reality underlying
the universe doesn’t need to correspond to everyday appearances
- Starts process of philosophical criticism - giving a reasonable counter-argument
- Early conception of natural laws and evolution
3. Anaximenes - Air
- Says Apeiron is an empty concept and we don’t know if it exists
- Air is everywhere
- Air supports life
- Water can’t support the earth but air can
- Problem of change: 2 principles that a ect air = expansion (heat) and compression (cold)
- Causes air to change into new elements
- Signi cance: Conceptual clari cation (Apeiron is too vague)
- Tries to give an empirical basis for theories
MILESIANS’ CONTRIBUTION
- Early empiricism: use sensory experience to obtain knowledge
- Early rationalism: try to deduce knowledge about reality by means of reasons
- Raises the problem of appearance vs reality
- Assume they can explain the universe in terms of a single principle
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, - Assume the principal is physical
- Identify the problem of change
Socrates
Athens in the 5th century BCE / Golden Age
- Centre of greek culture
- Democratic (had both positive and negative consequences for Athens)
- Advances in medicine, architecture, art, poetry, drama
Cultural changes:
1. Respect for traditional authorities and myths declines = no metaphysical basis for
values
2. More contact with di erent cultures, laws and customs - realise values are relative to
culture
3. Democracy: Individualism and opportunities for personal power and success, less
interested in the divine origins of society or metaphysical questions
4. Philosophers and scientists can’t agree about reality = leads to scepticism. Led to less
interest in metaphysics and questions, instead more practicality
Sophists
- Travelling teachers - eduction in the political arts
- Aristotle says they made the worse argument seem better
- Sceptical: don’t believe true knowledge is possible and only interested in political
success
- Relativists: Instead of asking is it true? They’ll ask: will it advantage me?
- Deny physis (nature - independent of humans and objective); accept nomos (practices
based on human convention, subjective - knowledge is relative)
- Ethical realists: morality is only a matter of convention
Protagoras
- “Man is the measure of all things”
Relativism
- Everything we know / believe is based on how we experience things and individual
opinion
- No way to di erentiate between di erent beliefs
- All beliefs and opinions are equally true
Socrates
Socrates and Plato
- React against the Sophists
- Argue that relativism undermines itself
- Look for universal truths (especially ethically)
Socrates vs Sophists
- Describes himself as a “gad- y” (need to be irritating and reform society)
Oracle of Delphi
- Oracle (Witch person) said socrates is the wisest man in Athens
- He said “I do not think that I know what I do not know”
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