This summary is about the book: Educational Psychology. The summary contains chapters: 1 to 12. This comprehensive summary was written for the Developmental and Educational Psychology course of the NVO plus package and the SPO's pre-master Orthopedagogy.
Pre master Orthopedagogiek SPO/Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
Ontwikkelings en onderwijspsychologie
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Samenvatting Onderwijs- en ontwikkelpsychologie
Chapter 1: Learning, teaching and educational psychology
Educational psychology: the discipline concerned with teaching and learning processes; applies the methods
and theories of psychology and has its own as well. Educational psychologists do research on learning and
teaching and work to improve educational policy and practice. To understand as much as possible about
learning and teaching, educational psychologists examine what happens when someone teaches something to
someone else in some setting. Educational psychologists study child an adolescent development; learning and
motivation; social and cultural influences on learning; teaching and teachers; and assessment, including testing.
Some of the research studies educational psychologists do are descriptive studies (studies that collect detailed
information about specific situation, often using observation, surveys, interviews, recordings or a combination).
Often the results of descriptive studies include reports of correlations. A correlation is a number that indicates
both the strength and the direction of a relationship between two events or measurements. Correlations range
from +1 to -1. Positive correlations is a relationship between two variables in which the two increase or
decrease together. Negative correlation is a relationship between two variables in which a high value on one is
associated with a low value on the other. Correlation do not prove cause and effect. A third variable may be
the cause of the effect.
A second type of research, experimentation, allows educational psychologists to go beyond predictions,
variables are manipulated and the effects recorded. A number of comparable groups of participants are
created. The groups of participants are random assigned to a group. Quasi-experimental studies meet most of
the criteria for true experiments, with the exception that the participants are not assigned to groups at
random. When differences in groups are described as statically significant, it means that it is not likely to be a
chance occurrence.
The goal of ABAB designs is to determine the effects of a therapy, teaching method, or other intervention by
first observing the participants for a baseline period (A) and assess the behaviour of interest; then trying an
intervention (B) and noting the results; then removing the intervention and go back to baseline conditions (A);
and finally reinstating the intervention (B). This form can help establish a cause-and-effect relationship.
A clinical interview (Piaget) uses open-ended questioning to probe responses and to follow up on answers.
Questions go wherever the child’s responses lead.
A case study investigates one person or situation in depth.
Ethnographic methods involve studying the naturally occurring events in the life of a group to understand the
meaning of these events to the people involved. In education psychology research, ethnographies might study
how students form different cultural groups are viewed by their peers or how teachers’ beliefs about students’
abilities affect classroom interactions. In some studies the researcher uses participant observation. A method
for conducting descriptive research in which the researcher becomes a participant in the situation in order to
better understand life in that group.
Most research is cross-sectional (focusing on groups of students at different ages), because longitudinal studies
are time-consuming and expensive. Both research examine change over long periods of time. The goal of
microgenetic studies (detailed observation and analysis of changes in a cognitive process as the process unfolds
over a several-day or several-week period of time) is to intensively study cognitive processes while the change
is actually occurring. The microgenetic approach has 3 basic characteristics: The researchers (a) observe the
entire period of the change (b) make many observations, often using video recording, interviews and
transcriptions and (c) put the observed behaviour “under a microscope” that is they examine it moment by
moment or trial by trial. The goal is to explain the underlying mechanism of change.
Qualitative research: exploratory research that attempts to understand the meaning of events to the
participants involved using such methods as case studies, interviews, ethnography, participant observation,
and other approaches that focus on a few people in depth. The goal is to explore specific situation or people in
depth and to understand the meaning of the events to the people involved in order to tell their story.
Quantitative research: research that studies many participants in a more formal and controlled way using
objective measures such as experimentation, statistical analyses, tests, and structured observation.
Researchers try to be objective as possible in order to remove their own biases form their results. One
advantage is that result from one study can be generalized or applied to other similar situations or people.
Many researchers use mixed methods or complementary methods. These research designs are procedures for
,collecting, analysing and mixing both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or series of studies.
There are 3 basic ways of combining methods:
1. A researcher collects both quantitative and qualitative data at the same time, then merges and integrates
the data.
2. The researcher collects quantitative data first and then follows this by performing in-depth qualitative
interviews of selected participants. The goal here is to explain or look for causes.
3. The researcher first conducts interviews or case studies to identify research questions, then collects
quantitative data as guided by the qualitative findings. The goal may be to explore a situation deeply.
Design-based research: practitioners identify research questions based on problems of practice, then
researchers gather and analyse the data to address those problems. Action research: systematic observations
or test of methods conducted by teachers or schools to improve teaching and learning for their students.
If enough studies are completed in a certain area and findings repeatedly point to the same conclusions, we
eventually arrive at a principle: established relationship between factors. Another tool for building a better
understanding of the teaching and learning processes is theory: integrated statement of principles that
attempts to explain a phenomenon and make predictions.
Empirical process (based on systematically collected data):
- Clear specification of hypotheses, problems, or questions based on current theories.
- Systematic gathering and analysis of all kinds of information (data) about the questions form well-chosen
research participants in carefully selected situations.
- Interpretation and analysis of the data gathered using appropriate methods to answer the questions.
- Modification and improvement of explanatory theories based on the results of those analyses.
- Formulation of new and better hypotheses based on the improved theories … and on and on.
Chapter 2: Cognitive development
The term development refers to certain changes that occur in human beings between conception and death.
This term applies to those changes that appear in orderly ways and remain for a reasonably long period of
time. Human development can be divided into a number of different aspects: physical development (changes
in the body), personal development (changes in an individual’s identity and personality), social development
(changes in the way an individual relates to others) and cognitive development (changes in thinking, reasoning
and decision making).
Many changes during development are matters of growth and maturation. Maturation refers to changes that
occur naturally and spontaneously and that are, to a large extent, genetically programmed. Much of a person’s
physical development falls into this category. Other changes are brought about through learning. Such changes
make up a large part of a person’s social development. In the development of thinking and personality both
maturation and interaction with the environment (nature and nurture) play a part. Psychologist disagree about
the amount of emphasis to place on each one.
There are some continuing debates about key questions surrounding development:
- What is the source of development? Nature vs nurture. Today the environment is seen as critical to
development, but so are biological factors and individual differences. Current views emphasize complex
coactions (joint actions) of nature and nurture. For example: a child born with a very easy-going, calm
disposition will likely elicit different reactions from parents, playmates and teachers than a child who is
often upset and difficult to soothe. This shows that individuals are active in constructing their own
environments. But environments shape individuals as well.
- What is the shape of development? Continuity vs discontinuity. Is human development a continuous
process of increasing abilities, or are there leaps to new stages when abilities actually change. Continuous
or quantitative refers to a steady progress. A discontinuous or qualitative change is more like level periods
where you ascent the next step all at once. Piaget’s theory of cognitive development is an example of
qualitative, discontinuous change in children’s thinking abilities.
- Timing: is it too late? Critical vs sensitive periods. Many earlier psychologists, particularly those influenced
by Freud, believed that early childhood experiences were critical, especially for emotional/social and
cognitive development. More recent research shows that later experiences are powerful too, and can
change the direction of development. Most psychologists today talk about sensitive periods (and not
critical periods). There are times when a person is especially ready for or responsive to certain experiences.
,There are a few general principles almost all theorists would support:
1. People develop at different rates.
2. Development is relatively orderly. People develop abilities in a logical order. Bur orderly doesn’t mean
linear or predictable. People might advance, stay the same for a period of time, or even go backward.
3. Development takes place gradually.
The brain and cognitive development
The brain stem handles basic functions such as heart rate, breathing and blood pressure as well as levels of
arousal such as sleeping and wakeful attention. Cerebellum coordinates and orchestrates balance and smooth
skilled movements and plays a role in higher cognitive functions such as learning. The hippocampus is critical in
recalling new information and recent experiences. Amygdala directs emotions and aggression. The thalamus is
involved in our ability to learn new information, particularly if it is verbal. The corpus callosum connects the
two hemispheres of the brain to allow communication between them for complex mental processing. The
frontal lobe is the area that sets humans apart by enabling us to process information for planning,
remembering, making decisions, solving problems and thinking creatively.
Brain imaging techniques:
- Computerized axial tomography (CAT) -> uses X-ray technology to provide enhanced, 3d-dimensional
images of the part of the body scanned.
- Positron emission tomography (PET) -> method of localizing and measuring brain activity using computer-
assisted motion pictures of the brain.
- Electroencephalograph (EEG) -> measures electrical patterns in the brain created by neuron movements
using electrodes attached to the scalp.
- Event-related potential (ERP) -> measurements that assess electrical activity of the brain through the skull
or scalp. It uses EEG data to study the brain as people perform activities such as reading.
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) -> uses MRI to measure tiny changes that take place in the
brain during brain activity. It shows blood flows within the brain when people do different cognitive tasks.
- Near-infrared optical tomography (NIR-OT) -> uses an opticalfiber to transmit near-infrared light through
the scalp and into the brain. Some of the light is reflected back, indicating blood flow and oxygenation in
the blood that reveal brain activity.
The developing brain: neurons
Neurons are nerve cells that accumulate and transmit information (in the form of electrical activity) in the brain
and other parts of the nervous system. Also called grey matter. The production of new neurons, neurogenesis,
continues into adulthood. Neuron cells send out long arm- and branch-like fibers called axons and dendrites to
connect with other neuron cells. The fiber ends from different neurons don’t touch, there are tiny spaces
between them called synapses. Neurons share information by using electrical signals and by releasing
chemicals that jump across the synapses. Axons transmit information out to muscles, glands, or other neurons;
dendrites receive information and transmit it to the neuro cells themselves. Connections between neuros by
these synaptic transmissions become stronger with use or practice and weaker when not used. The strength of
these synaptic connections is dynamic, this is called synaptic plasticity.
By ages 2 to 3 children have many more synapses than they will have as adults, they are oversupplied with
neurons and synapses they will need to adapt to their environment. Only those neurons that are used will
survive, and unused neurons will be pruned. This pruning is necessary and supports cognitive development.
Some developmental disabilities are associated with a gene defect that interferes with pruning. Two kind of
overproduction and pruning processes take place:
1. Experience-expectant: synapses are overproduced in certain parts of the brain during specific development
periods, awaiting (expecting) stimulation. For example, during the first months of life, the brain expects
auditory stimulation. If a normal range of sounds occurs, then the auditory areas of the brain develop. But
children who are born completely deaf don’t receive this and as a result the auditory processing of their
brains becomes devoted to processing visual information.
2. Experience-dependent. Synaptic connections are formed based on the individual’s experiences. New
synapses are formed in response to neural activity in very localized areas of the brain. Examples are
learning to ride a bike or use a spreadsheet.
Glial cells are the white matter of the brain. These cells outnumber neurons and appear to have many functions
such as fighting infections, controlling blood flow and communication among neurons, and providing the
, myelin coating around axon fibers. Myelination, the coating of axon neuron fibers with an insulting fatty glial
covering, influences thinking and learning. This myelin coating makes message transmission faster and more
efficient. Myelination happens quickly in the early years but continues gradually into adolescence, with the
child’s brain doubling in volume in the first year of life and building again around puberty.
The developing brain: Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex is the outer covering of the brain, it is a thin sheet of neurons. It is the last part of the brain
to develop, so it is believed to be more susceptible to environmental influences than other areas of the brain.
Parts of the cortex mature at different rates and different areas seem to have distinct functions.
Another aspect of brain functioning that has implications for cognitive development is lateralization, or the
specialisation of the two hemispheres of the brain. We know that each half of the brain controls the opposite
side of the body. In addition, certain areas of the brain affect particular behaviours. The left hemisphere is a
major factor in language processing, the right handles much of our spatial-visual information and emotions
(nonverbal info). For some left-handed people, the relationship may be revered, but for most left-handers, and
for females on average, there is less hemispheric specialisation altogether. The brains of young children show
more plasticity because they are not as specialized or lateralized.
Brain development in childhood and adolescence
Infants learn by exploring, acting and observing. They are self-directed in adventure. During this time a
stimulating, responsive and safe environment is important. In the elementary school years, children’s brains
continue to grow. The different parts of the brain that support various processes such as perception, memory
and emotion become more networked and connected. These interconnections enable children to reflect on
their feelings and thoughts. Children also can add to their store of knowledge and hold more information in
memory at one time. But they still have limited attention spans. During adolescence, changes in the brain
increase individuals abilities to control their behaviour in both low stress and high-stress situations, to be more
purposeful and organized, and to inhibit impulsive behaviour. But these abilities are not fully developed until
the early twenties. They often have trouble avoiding risks and controlling impulses. One explanation of this
looks to differences in the pace of development for two key components of the brain: the limbic system and
the prefrontal cortex of the brain. The limbic system develops earlier; It is involved with emotions and reward-
seeking/novelty/risk-taking/sensation-seeking behaviours. The prefrontal lobe takes more time to develop; it is
involved with judgement and decision making. As the limbic system matures, adolescents become more
responsive to pleasure seeking and emotional stimulation. Risk taking and novelty seeking can be positive
factors for adolescent development as young people couragesly try new ideas and behaviours, and learning is
stimulated. But their less mature prefrontal lobe is not yet good in estimating risk. So in emotional situations,
thrill seeking wins out over caution, at least until the prefrontal lobe catches up and becomes more integrated
with the limbic system toward the end of adolescence. There are individual differences.
Other changes in the neurological system during adolescence affect sleep. Teenagers need about 9 hours of
sleep, but many students’ biological clocks are reset, making it difficult for them to fall asleep before midnight.
Research shows that sleep deprivation impairs the initial formation of memories for facts.
Neuroscience, learning and teaching
There are differences in brain activity associated with instruction. For example, the intensive instruction and
practice provide to rehabilitate stroke victims can help them regain functioning by forming new connections
and using new areas of the brain.
Brain imaging research is revealing interesting differences among skilled and less-skilled reader as they learn
new vocabulary. Less-skilled reader had trouble establishing high-quality representations of new vocabulary
words in their brains. When they encountered new words later, the brains often didn’t recognize that they had
seen the word before, even though they had learned it in an earlier lesson. Reading is a complex integration of
the systems in the brain that recognise sounds, written symbols, meanings and sequences, and they connect
with what the reader already knows. This has to happen quickly and automatically. Different students may
learn in different ways: use multiple approaches that teach sounds, spelling, meanings, sequencing and
vocabulary through reading, writing, discussing, explaining, drawing and modelling.
Another clear connection between the brain and classroom learning is in the area of emotion and stress.
Emotions can become paired with particular situations. Anxiety interferes with learning, whereas challenge,
interest and curiosity can support learning.
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