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Using this summary, I got an 8.3 on the exam. This summary contains everything needed for the Literary Theory course at VU university.* All terms used are in italics and can be revised through the Quizlet I linked at the end of the summary. Good luck with studyin...
Literary Theory
Marxist criticism
For Marxism, the base on which the superstructure of social/political/ideological
realities are built is economics. In other words, getting and keeping economic power is the
motive behind all social and political activities. Economic power and social and political
power are intertwined; hence Marxists refer to classes as socioeconomic classes.
Economic conditions are referred to as material circumstances and the
social/political/ideological atmosphere this generates is called the historical situation.
According to Marxism, all human events have specific material/historical causes and
differences is socioeconomic class cause the biggest divides between people.
Bourgeoisie (owners, rich) and proletariat (workers, less affluent) are not specific
enough as terms anymore. The socioeconomic class division can be observed in the
following groups: the underclass (homeless), lower class (poor), middle class (the financially
established), upper class (the well-to-do), and the aristocracy (the extremely wealthy). These
classes are economically oppressed, privileged or a bit of both.
The lower classes are kept in place by the following elements: general struggle to
survive, oppression by police etc. through mistreatment once they are perceived as a treat
to the power structure (strikes etc.), and the most effective one: ideology.
Ideology: belief system, which in turn is a product of cultural conditioning.
Undesirable ideologies promote repressive political agendas and pass themselves of as a
natural way of seeing the world, instead of acknowledging themselves as ideologies. This
prevents us from understanding the material/historical circumstances we live in because
repressive ideologies refuse to acknowledge that these conditions have any bearing on the
way we see the world (e.g. capitalism). The most successful ideologies are usually seen as
the natural way of seeing the world by people subscribed to them. Their believe in this
naturalness blinds them from the unfairness of reality. With this comes a sense of false
consciousness, meaning an ideal functions to mask its own failure; its real purpose is
promoting the interest of those in power.
- Classism equates one’s value to the socioeconomic class they belong to and thus
promotes discrimination against the poor.
- Patriotism keeps the poor fighting wars against each other while the rich profit off of
it. They see themselves as members of a country rather than an oppressed
worldwide group.
- Religion keeps faithful poor people satisfied with their fate. Organised, it’s utilized to
promote discrimination and to ‘help’ the poor through exploiting the middle class.
- Rugged individualism romanticizes the individual who risks a lot for a high goal. It
puts self-interest above the needs and lives of others.
- Consumerism tells us ‘We’re only as good as what we buy’. It offers the possibility of
being ‘as good as’ the rich and pushes consumption which mostly benefits the
already existing aristocracy and upper class.
When we are being entertained, we are more susceptible to ideological programming, which
is why Marxist critics work towards identifying the ideology at work in cultural productions;
entertainment is one of the primary bearers of ideology.
, Marx had concerns over the rise of capitalist economy and was worried about the
effects of capitalism on human values. Objects their value gets translated into a monetary
equivalent and our relationship with commodities gets damaged. For Marxism, a
commodity’s value lies not in its use value (what it can do), but in its exchange value (trade
worth) or its sign-exchange value (social status worth). Both these values are decided by
society.
commodification is the act of relating to objects or persons in terms of their exchange
value or sign-exchange value. Excessive display of costly goods or services is called
conspicuous consumption. Humans are commodified when relations with them are
structured and promoted for one’s personal advancement financially or socially. From a
Marxist perspective sign-exchange value is the primary mode for us, thanks to capitalism
which is dependent on consumerism.
Capitalism is also responsible for the spread of imperialism: the military, economic,
and/or cultural domination of one nation by another for the financial benefit of the
dominating nation with little or no concern for the welfare of the dominated. These
established communities, or colonies, are used to extend its economic interest. To colonize
the consciousness of subordinate people means to convince them to see their situation like
the colonizers like it, to tell them they are inferior to their conquerors and these people are
here to guide and protect them.
Psychoanalysis and Marxism both concern human psychology, but Marxism focuses
on the material/historical forces that shape the psychological experience and behaviour of
groups. Where psychoanalysis analyses the dysfunctionality of families and the product it
produces, Marxism looks at how this dysfunction is a product of the socioeconomic system
and the promoted ideologies.
Marxism in literature
By revealing the ways in which a literary work reinforces the capitalist values it
criticizes, its engaging in deconstructive enterprise. Marxist critics borrow many other critical
theory to reach its goal. For Marxism, literature is a product of the socioeconomic and
ideological conditions of the time and place in which it was written, whether intended by the
other or not. Possibilities of interest created by this are (1) the work might reinforce the
ideologies it embodies in the reader, or (2) it might invite the reader to criticize the
ideologies it embodies. The content (what) and most of all the form (how) of literary works
carry the ideology.
For some Marxists, realism is the best form because it accurately represents the real
world and its inequities. Other Marxists value more experimental, nonrealistic fiction
because the fragmentation of experience it represents constitute a critique of the
fragmented world produced by capitalism today. Although they disagree on which works are
the most useful in promoting social awareness and political change, many believe even these
are conform with the repressive ideological agendas.
Marxist questions on literary texts:
1. Does the work reinforce capitalist, imperialist, or classist values? It’s the critic’s job to
expose and condemn these.
, 2. How might the work be seen as a critique of capitalism, imperialism or classism? If
the work criticizes oppressive socioeconomic forces, it may be said to have a Marxist
agenda.
3. Is the work ideologically conflicted?
4. How does the work reflect on the socioeconomic conditions of the time in which it
was written or set, and what do those conditions reveal about the history of class
struggle?
5. How might the work be seen as a critique of organized religion?
Gatsby (Marxist reading)
It can be argued that the novel critiques American capitalist ideology, but at the same
time it can be shown that the novel at times fails to push its critique far enough, becoming
the unwitting prey of the capitalist ideology it attacks.
The great Gatsby does not celebrate the heady capitalist culture it portrays, but as a
Marxist interpretation of the novel makes clear, reveals its dark underbelly instead. It very
well portrays the commodification of people, for example with Tom and Daisy’s marriage;
marrying Daisy was an exchange of her youth, beauty and social standing for Tom’s money
and power and the image of strength and stability they imparted on him. Tom’s unfulfillable
desires are that he wasn’t born in the east. East old money was considered the best type of
old money. His behavior towards Myrtle, which is vulgar, rude and aggressive, can be seen as
an attempt to reassure himself that his money and power are all that count, insulated from
his considerations of class and refinement. This also goes for his ‘intellectualism’ and racism.
Daisy, however, is not a mere innocent victim of Tom’s commodification. She herself
also commodified Tom when she decided to marry him for his sign-exchange value. Even her
affair with Gatsby never would have happened if she hadn’t thought he was as established
as she was.
Contrasting, the valley of ashes is a chilling image of the life led by those who don’t
have the same socioeconomic resources as the Buchanans. Ashes represent the ‘waste’ or
used up things and is portrayed as a dumping ground for both stuff and humans. The only
way to survive is letting someone like Tom exploit you, which is shown in George and the
car, and Myrtle accepting his abusive behavior.
Gatsby reveals the hollowness of the American Dream, even when he seems to
embody it. He rose to fame a la rags-to-riches, but although portrayed in a better light than
Tom and Daisy, he also commodifies the world a lot if not more. For Gatsby, the sole
function of material possessions is their sign-exchange value. Possession of Daisy would give
Gatsby what he truly wants: a permanent sign that he belongs to her socioeconomic class,
the old money status. His commodification of the world is, like Tom’s, linked to the cold-
blooded aggression with which he pursues what he wants.
The Great Gatsby’s representation of American culture reveals the debilitating effects
of capitalism on socioeconomic winners (Tom, Daisy, Gatsby) as well as on losers like George
and Myrtle. They are victims of capitalism because the only way to succeed in a capitalist
economy is to succeed in a market, which neither of them do, so they are condemned to the
valley of ashes. However, their characterizations are so negative it cuts into the readers
sympathy. By the novel’s wording, we would rather blame them both for either not
bettering themselves, or bettering themselves too aggressively, instead of blaming the active
class oppression. A more subtle flaw is the way Nick romanticizes Gatsby. He glosses over
Gatsby’s flaws and darker sides throughout the novel. One can argue that this is because
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