Samenvatting Politiek van de Europese Unie 2022/2023 Universiteit Leiden
Politics of the European Union Notes on Readings - GRADE 8,0
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Notes – Politics of the European Union 2023
Lecture 01: 04/04/2023
Historical context
The post-war transformation of Western Europe
Europe has been characterised much more by division than common purpose or harmony. Language has been
perhaps the most apparent division force. Religion and other cultural traditions have further served to develop
distinct identifications. There were various political regimes and types, and only in the mid-1970s has
parliamentary democracy become the norm. These divisions partly led to the two World Wars.
The background to the Second World War
Sharp and fluid European inter-state relations characterised the period between WWI and WWII. There was no
stable alliance system and no precise balance of power. Moreover, there was no genuine interest in European
cooperation before WW2, and the League of Nations showed this as it failed to deliver its aims.
The Impact of WW2 on Europe
- Economic devastation,
- Political weakness,
- The continent was quickly divided in two,
- The Versailles approach had not resolved the German problem.
Unbroken peace
Military conflict has been irrelevant to Western European countries after WW2, and common threats, like
communism, helped to build communities such as NATO. In addition, the new communication channels through
formal processes in the EU have helped build a stable system.
Differences between the Western European states
- Although they had much in common post-World War II, there were major differences between West
European states. Founders of the EU: Benelux, West Germany, France, and Italy.
- No state participated in the integration process for idealistic reasons:
- Hard-headed national calculations always prevailed.
- In Milward's phrase, integration helped 'rescue' the European nation-state.
Explaining the transformation and its nature
Deep roots of integration
Advocates of European integration have suggested that Europe is and has long been a unique and identifiable
entity. Limited commonality, as existed before, has primarily been a consequence of geographical proximity.
Europe's industrialisation was successful because Europe was a single integrated economy, with the labour
movement, freedom of movement of goods and new emerging technologies. However, while industrialisation and
economic liberalisation provide a potential base for interconnections, they do not ensure or guarantee them.
The impact of WW2
- The first political factor was combating nationalism.
- As WW2 showed, nationalism was a recipe for war and would produce mass destruction.
- The second political factor was the new political map of Europe.
- WW2 was to result in a fundamental redrawing of the political map in Europe. The goal was to
preserve Western Europe from communism and the East.
- The third political factor was the new international power balance.
- The new Cold War dynamics produced the possibility of Europe becoming a battleground once
again, and European states wanted to speak unitedly.
- The fourth political factor was the German problem.
- The previous aggression by Germany led to other states' wish to somehow contain Germany.
,Notes – Politics of the European Union 2023
The economic factors were the new development of international banks and especially the Marshall Aid to help
European states recover. The OEEC was the first European organisation that should coordinate joint economic
policies and helped distribute US aid. The OEEC later made a place for the OECD, including non-European states.
Interdependence
European interdependence has arisen particularly from three features of the post-1945 world: the enormously
increased volume of world trade, the internationalisation of production with multinational corporations, and the
fluctuations and uncertainties with currency exchange rates.
In addition, economic factors and competition with other countries led European states to focus on working
together and creating favourable conditions for them. However, political factors still influence the integration
process; for example, European countries have a bigger voice together than they would have individually.
Early advocates and architects of European integration
Main deviser of the Schuman Plan and President of
Jean Monnet
the High Authority of the ECSC – a technocrat
Presenter of the Schuman Declaration and former
Robert Schuman
French Prime Minister and Foreign Minister
Konrad Adenauer German Chancellor
Alcide de Gasperi Italian Prime Minister
The European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) – Treaty of Paris – 1951
- Idea put forth in the Schuman Declaration (1950)
- Envisaged duration: 50 years.
- Ambition to create a free trade area.
- ECSC was the first organisation of the future EU.
- Why coal and steel?
- At the time were some of the basic materials of any industrialised society.
- Moreover, coal and steel were key materials to make arms and wage war in Europe.
- Lay the foundations of a common market.
Many of those attracted to the ECSC saw it in very restrictive terms: as an organisation that might advance limited
and carefully defined purpose. The Schuman Declaration was quite explicit that the proposals were intended to
be the first step in realising a vision of a united Europe, with a Franco-German reconciliation at its heart. Schuman
clarified that France and West Germany would proceed without other states joining. Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg,
and the Netherlands joined by signing the Treaty of Paris.
The later written ECSC Treaty broke new ground in two principal ways. First, its policy aims were highly ambitious,
including a common coal, coke, iron ore, steel, and scrap market. Second, it was the first of the European inter-
state organisations to possess significant supranational characteristics.
,Notes – Politics of the European Union 2023
The main institutions created by the ECSC Treaty
- The High Authority (becomes European Commission)
- Nine members, including two each from the larger states and one each from the smaller states.
- The appointed members should be independent and not think as delegates from their states.
- The membership and powers of the High Authority combined to give it a clear supranational
character.
- Function: to remove barriers to the free movement of coal and steel. To represent the joint
interests of the ECSC.
- The Council of Ministers
- Ministers from the national governments constituted the membership of the Council, with each
state having one Representative.
- The primary responsibility was to harmonise the actions of the High Authority and the
Governments.
- Function: to make decisions on proposals from the High Authority.
- The Common Assembly (becomes European Parliament)
- 78 members chosen by national legislatures, divided among member states based on population.
- Mainly advisory and supervisory function.
- The Court of Justice
- Seven members: six judges and a trade union representative.
- Function: settling conflicts between states and ruling on the legality of High Authority decisions.
The success of the early years was impeded when the individual member states looked for individual,
uncoordinated, and protective measures. This showed the weakness of the High Authority.
From the ECSC to the EEC
Other initiatives
- The European Defence Community – EDC (1950)
- The goal was to establish a European Army under the political institutions of a united Europe.
- Similar institutional structure as the ECSC → supranational organisation
- Rejected by the French National Assembly in 1954
- Western European Union – WEU (1955): 6 + UK
- loosely structured, only intergovernmental, essentially consultative, primarily defence-orientated
organisation, allowed West Germany to join NATO.
The ECSC Treaty was the institutional model for the EEC and Euratom Treaties but moved from supranationalism
towards intergovernmentalism.
- After the failure of the EDC, refocus on economic integration.
- Guided by ideas of free-market, liberal, non-interventionist capitalism.
- But with some protectionist elements: agriculture (because of the French) + some elements of
social policy
- Messina Declaration (1955) → Treaties of Rome (1957)
- The European Economic Community (EEC)
- The European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)
, Notes – Politics of the European Union 2023
The EEC and Euratom Treaties – 1957
The EEC Treaty had a policy as its primary concern. The ideologies were that of free-market, liberal, non-
interventionist capitalism. However, the intention was never to abandon national economic controls.
Goal: gradual establishment of a common market
- Free trade area: Remove all tariffs and quantitative restrictions on internal trade.
- Customs union: Create a Common External Tarif (CET) and develop a common external trade
policy – the Common Commercial Policy (CCP)
- Common rules: Prohibit practices that distort or prevent competition between Member States
and monopolies.
- Common/ Single Market: Promote free movement of goods, persons, services, and capital.
- And references to a future common currency.
The Euratom Treaty was naturally confined to the atomic energy field.
The Euratom provisions:
- Limited to the atomic energy field. Focus on:
- the promotion of research.
- the dissemination/ spreading of information.
- health and safety standards.
- creation of a common nuclear market.
- But provisions watered down by differences between states.
- Many exceptions allow the protection of national interests in a sensitive field.
The main institutions created by the EEC and Euratom Treaties – 1957
- Commission
- Nine members: two from the larger and one from the smaller states, for six years.
- Function: less power than the Higher Authority to impose decisions on member states. Charged
with initiating policy and overseeing implementation.
- Council of Ministers
- Government ministers share 17 votes (some decisions unanimous and some simple majority, the
rest by a qualified majority of 12 votes from four states).
- Function: to make decisions on proposals from the Commission.
- Parliamentary Assembly
- 142 appointed members (elected from 1979)
- Function: could question or censure the Commission (advisory and supervisory role).
- Court of Justice
- Seven judges were appointed for renewable six-year terms.
- Function: responsible for interpreting the treaties and ensuring that the EEC institutions and the
member states fulfilled their treaty obligations.
In 1965, the three communities merged into the European Community (EC).
ECSC ECC Euratom
High Authority Commission Commission
Council of Ministers Council of Ministers Council of Ministers
Common Assembly Assembly Assembly
Court of Justice Court of Justice Court of Justice
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