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TEX2601 - LESSON 1
- Institution
- University Of South Africa (Unisa)
- Lang: English - Lesson 1: The Inverted Pyramid
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LESSON 1: THE INVERTED PYRAMID STRUCTUREOVERVIEW
In this lesson, we focus on the inverted pyramid framework (its function and structure) as it applies to
news reports (hard copy and online), news bulletins (television – TV and radio) and press releases. We
will focus on its individual components, as well as unique characteristics related to specific text types.
OUTCOMES
After having worked through this lesson, you should be able to
• name the different components of the inverted pyramid framework for each text type
• explain how each component is meant to function
• write a news report for a newspaper using the inverted pyramid framework
• write a news bulletin for TV or radio using the inverted pyramid framework
• write a press release using the inverted pyramid framework
You will need to master the following key concepts in order to achieve the learning outcomes for this
lesson:
• hard news versus soft news • newspaper and broadcasting reports
• newsworthiness • conversational style
• reporting facts • attribution
• the inverted pyramid framework • feeling of immediacy and active voice
• summary and soft leads • news releases
• documenting paragraphs • crisis risk communication
TIME REQUIRED FOR LESSON 1
The notional hours for this course are 120 hours. This leaves you with eight hours per week. You need
to spend at least two hours per week on the study material, which translates to 30 hours in total. For
this lesson, you need to allocate approximately six hours.
See figure 1.1 below for a visual summary of the lesson.
Figure 1.1: A visual overview of the lesson
,1.1 INTRODUCTION
Have you ever given much thought to the way articles or press releases are written? For instance, where
do the authors find the information to write a report? Once they have the necessary data, how do the
authors go about piecing all of it together? If you had to guess, how would you suggest it is done? Often,
we imagine someone sitting behind a computer; the desk a chaotic mess of paper, notes, files and coffee
mugs. Underneath all the debris there is a phone, ringing. Someone is calling to verify a fact or two.
The author then gets into the zone of writing and starts putting their thoughts down. What is your
impression?
In most cases, texts that convey factual information, like the reporting of news, have less to do with
writing and more to do with assembling. Often, the creators of these texts collect the information and
then piece it together using a number of frameworks. Ultimately, the goal of the text and its content will
determine the chosen framework. In the event of reporting a variety of hard news, authors often employ
the inverted pyramid framework (IPF). It consists of different components, like a lead-in, followed by
documenting paragraphs and an end. But, the framework does not look exactly the same for all text
types. For instance, a press release contains added features within the IPF that a newspaper report does
not.
1.2 HARD NEWS VERSUS SOFT NEWS
The IPF is quite easy to apply. However, before we look at the framework and start focusing on each
listed text type, we need to understand the distinction between the two kinds of news. We have already
mentioned “hard news”, which is mostly contrasted with “soft news”. Hard news is seen as “timely,
important and consequential” (Digital News Report, 2016); it is seen as up-to-the-minute news or events
that require immediate reporting (Deahl, 2019). It is usually associated with politics, economics, sports
news or crime. Soft news is considered the opposite. It relates to background information or human
interest stories. This includes reports on entertainment, travel, lifestyle and health. Sometimes the
distinction is less clear; a report may reflect features of both types of news (College Journalism, 2008).
For example, articles reporting on an outbreak of Ebola, the Zika virus or coronavirus will include facts
that necessitate immediate reporting, but they will often also contain information about health, lifestyle
and travel. The best distinction between the two is the tone in which the story is reported: hard news
takes on a factual approach (Deahl, 2019; College Journalism, 2008). Hard news answers the questions
of who was involved, where did it take place, why or how did it take place and when did it happen.
As mentioned, an important aspect in determining whether an item qualifies as hard news and thus the
need to report it immediately is its newsworthiness.
ACTIVITY 1.1
The time for this activity is five minutes.
Study the following headings taken from actual newspapers. Indicate which articles qualify as hard
news and which as soft news.
1. Strange couple steals 10-month-old baby in Umuahia, disappears (Vanguard, Nigeria)
2. Indeni oil refinery has had no crude oil for over 60 days (Lusaka Times, Zambia)
3. Rape suspect on bail nailed for two more (Mmegi, Botswana)
4. Ruto’s office loses its shine, glamour (Daily Nation, Kenya)
5. Judge trashes entire lockdown regime as constitutionally flawed (Mail & Guardian, South
Africa)
1.3 NEWSWORTHINESS
,It is somewhat difficult to accurately define what “newsworthiness” is. Fedler (1989:174; 179–181)
says the choice of news for a newspaper is usually determined purely subjectively. However, judging
from the published reports in newspapers, it seems that they have one or more of the following
characteristics (Mudd, 2014; Media College, nd; Redohl, 2015; Purdue University, nd):
• Timeliness: In newspapers, the focus falls on current/topical events; things that happened today
or yesterday.
• Extent and importance: Reports that reach the newspaper deal with events that are important
or interesting to thousands of readers. If 200 people die in an air disaster, it is a more
newsworthy story than two people who die in a car accident. If an event influences only a few
people’s lives, it is less important than when a whole community is affected by it.
• Prominence: Reports on important persons are more newsworthy than those on people who do
not play a prominent role in society, politics or management structures. In addition, readers
have an insatiable interest in the affairs of prominent and famous people.
• Proximity: Most people are more interested in events in their immediate environment because
it affects their lives directly.
• Conflict: In general, audiences like to read about differences of opinion, arguments and
rivalries.
• Oddities/deviations: Deviations from the norm (unexpected or unusual events, conflicts,
controversial matters, dramatic events or changes) are more newsworthy than the
commonplace.
• Human interest stories: Though not always associated with hard news, people enjoy reading
about the human condition, stories that tell us more about a person’s struggles to make it big.
One of the aspects most people read about after the 2019 Rugby World Cup Final, was how
Springbok captain, Siya Kolisi, grew from humble beginnings to making it big.
ACTIVITY 1.2
The time for this activity is five minutes.
Study the following headings taken form actual newspapers. Classify them according to the type of
newsworthiness.
1. Don’t soil First Family image – Zanu PF (The Herald, Zimbabwe)
2. Tanzania former finance minister, Saada Mkuya, relives Escrow scam pain (The Citizen,
Tanzania)
3. “Vulture” stabs pregnant lover after sex (The Voice, Botswana)
4. Passengers stranded as public transport reopens (Daily Monitor, Uganda)
5. 57 companies apply to lay off 9000 employees (Eswatini Observer, Eswatini)
Newsworthiness is not the only aspect to consider when reporting hard news. A news report that sets
out to communicate important information as quickly as possible relies on objectivity and the
dissemination of facts.
1.4 REPORTING FACTS
Apart from the distinction between hard and soft news, another division is made between reports and
features. A report can broadly be described as a text in which a journalist reports objectively on
current/topical events (hard news). On the other hand, a feature (also referred to as an article) is usually
described as any text in which an event or topic is subjectively reported on, for instance any text type
in which advice, comment, viewpoints and value judgements are offered to the reader.
When journalists write a report and communicate facts, they should leave emotion and emotive
language at the door and only deal with information that can be verified. This means that journalists
should only report what they know to be true and their choice of words should reflect this. Emotive
language is the selection of words used to evoke certain feelings from the reader and by doing so the
, reader is manipulated to interpret the information in a similar way (Writing Explained, nd; Warburton,
2019). For example, using words like “tragic”, “terrible” or “sad” to describe an accident and the loss
of life qualifies as emotional expression. The journalist is describing how the scene is interpreted.
Readers must decide for themselves whether a car crash is horrible or not; ultimately, each person will
view the scene differently. Inexperienced journalists sometimes think that using certain emotive
expressions or word choices are typical of a reporter’s language: “an innocent bystander”, someone
who was murdered “in cold blood”, an audience that was left “unsatisfied” by a politician. But this is
bad practice for reports of hard news. In 2016, the Pew Research Center conducted a study on the
reporting of news and found that the American public preferred receiving the facts without any
accompanying interpretation. This ties in to a journalist’s responsibility to be objective and to represent
an issue as accurately as possible without adding unnecessary emotion or extra information that was
not there to start with (Patterson, 2013; Haelle, 2016).
So, what is a fact? A fact can be considered as a statement that is true or certain (Ingram & Henshall,
2019; Weber Associates, 2019). Three types of facts can be identified:
• proven facts
• probable facts
• probable lies
Ingram and Henshall (2019) describe proven facts as information that is proven to be true and is
accepted by everyone. At the time of writing, Mr Cyril Ramaphosa is the president of South Africa.
This is a fact that is known to most in Southern Africa and does not need verification. It is also important
to remember that facts can change. For instance, it will be false to say that the Zimbabwean capital is
still known as Salisbury, even if it was factual before 1982.
Ingram and Henshall (2019) describe probable facts as information that comes across as reliable and
reasonable but the journalist does not have the necessary means to verify its truthfulness. For example,
the Minister of Foreign Affairs says that she spoke with the Angolan Ambassador about a new oil import
deal worth millions. There is no way for you to verify this because the so-called discussion was behind
closed doors and the minister did not elaborate on what was said. However, unless the minister was
lying or made a mistake, the information seems reliable. Ingram and Henshall (2019) advise that
because you cannot verify the factualness of the information, it is good practice to attribute the probable
facts to the person(s) who made the statement, in this case the minister.
Lastly, Ingram and Henshall (2019) describe probable lies as information that may seem false or
ridiculous but could actually be true. Because these statements generate enough doubt, they must be
verified before being used. A statement implying that the Catholic Archbishop of Windhoek has been
married for 16 years may seem like rubbish but must be confirmed before it is published.
It is not always easy to distinguish between the different kinds of facts and what some may consider to
be the “truth”. The concept of truth can be elusive. And, for some it remains hard to separate fact from
opinion. Remember that hard news must be reported as objectively as possible, which means that you
– the journalist – must leave as little trace of yourself as possible.
ACTIVITY 1.3
The time for this activity is five minutes.
Can you clearly distinguish between factual statements and opinion? Take part in the following poll
and indicate if you think the following statements are facts or opinions.
1. Eswatini is one of a handful of absolute monarchies. (factual statement / opinion statement)
2. Nepal is the only modern country that does not have a rectangular national flag. (factual
statement / opinion statement)
3. Barack Obama was born in Tanzania in 1961. (factual statement / opinion statement)
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