HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
General principles of development
What is human development?
Human development is continuous process that starts w/ conception, continues
through adulthood, and stops at end of individual’s life.
What are the principles of development?
How does development occur through maturation and practice (learning)?
o What is maturation (the phylogenetic function)?
→ Unfolding of hereditary characteristics in an individual and
represents characteristics of the species
Potential traits for activities present at birth are controlled by
genetic transmission and unfold at the appropriate time
Specific combination of genes inherited are shown through
various characteristics and habits
The process
occurs without stimulation
includes both growth & deterioration
Phylogenetic functions / activities incl. crawling, sitting, standing, &
walking
o What is the learning process (ontogenetic function)?
Acquisition of new skills due to stimulation
Learning occurs by
Association
Classical / Operant conditioning,
Observation,
Imitation,
Identification
Teaching / purposeful education
Learning / development requires practice, effort & training from
individual.
Ontogenetic functions incl. swimming, riding a bicycle.
o What is the role of environmental support?
Environment includes all (human & non-human) aspects of
surroundings
Parents, friends, school, neighborhood, socioeconomic
conditions
“No hereditary tendency can mature fully w/out proper environmental
support. Children living in environments where educational
opportunities are limited will not develop their hereditary potentials to
the same extent as children whose environment offer better
educational opportunities.”
, o Explain the direct link between maturation & learning
What can be acquired through learning depends on level of maturity
Critical period for learning is when system has reached correct level of
maturation (‘readiness’)
As baby develops, they want to try out newly acquired skills.
They will practice until they have mastered the skill,
E.g., repeatedly try to stand upright, walk, & fall, but try again.
If hampered to practice skill, it will take longer period for skill to
develop, as critical period has passed, and motivation is largely lost.
E.g., Rolling can only be encouraged once child has adequate
extension of back muscles and rotation around body axis,
i.e., once they have developed neuro-muscular ability to roll.
o Why don’t all children develop at the same pace?
Guidelines for establishing whether child is ready to acquire a skill
Child shows an interest by asking to teach him something
e.g., asking to be shown to write his name.
Length of time he remains attentive.
Progress he makes through practice.
How does development take place according to a definite & predictable pattern?
o Development is the same for everybody
E.g., baby must sit before able to stand or walk; will draw a vertical
line before able to draw a horizontal line or circle.
Components of movement give way to more complex movements
E.g., first transfer weight from one foot to the other before walking
o Development occurs from general to specific responses (physical & psych)
E.g., startle response:
Initially whole body moves from flexion to extension
Later only slight upward movement in the sitting position will
occur.
o What occurs in one stage affects subsequent stages
E.g., emotional tension at home may affect young child’s developing
personality and it will later be evidenced by personality scars even in
home environment which is relatively free of stress or tension
o Rate of development varies
In child, development occurs at rapid pace from before birth to 3-4
years.
Thereafter, rate decreases, and functions develop at own pace and in
own time.
E.g., Environment and mental development re Creative
Imagination develops rapidly in childhood and peaks early in
adolescence. Reasoning proceeds at a relatively slow rate.
Rate at which development takes place varies from person to person
due to factors such as genetics, environment, nutrition, available
opportunities, and emotional climate
, o Correlation occurs in development
Developments in different areas are associated, rather than an over-
compensation occurring in one area for poor development in another
o All species follow a characteristic developmental pattern
Cephalocaudal development tendency → downward (head to toe)
Proximodistal development tendency → outward (out from midline)
o Predictability allows for standards of developmental stages to be set → know
what to expect at what age & allows adaptation of educational methods to suit
development (exploitation of optimum time for learning).
How is Development influenced by different factors?
o Genetic heritage
Everyone born w/ individuality → determines way in which they
approach world & utilize experiences in environment
Comprise potential for intelligence, aptitude, creativity, inner drive,
temperament, and other elements of personality
o Culture
Culture within which individual grows up plus associated norms and
values are determinants for development
how child is raised
the environment in which child develops
what child is taught
Norms, values and demands set for the child are all influenced by
parents’ culture
o Socio-economic factors
Socio-economic circumstance within which child is raised play’s
significant role in development
Parents w/ no education raise children differently to parents w/
professional careers
Stimulation received from environment varies in different socio-
economic groups
Factors (room to play, explore, learning about objects, and people
who set an example to follow) will all be different
o Gender
Gender differences affect a person’s life
Vulnerability (life expectancy)
Slower development in males
Pheno-typical variation (genetic & environmental factors)
Physical advantage / strengths of men
Brain constitution & dominance
Differences in personality
o Aggression
o Expressiveness
, o Health / Illness
Biological system processes ↔ Psychological system processes ↔ Social system
processes
What is the role of occupational therapy in human development?
Developmental Assessment
o Many measuring instruments assess whether child is functioning on age-
appropriate level, but not many exist to measure adults / adolescents
Facilitation & stimulation of development
o Children → OT will design programmes to provide necessary stimulation
o Adult → different emphasis
o OT will create environment in which relationships & appropriate activities
used as therapeutic medium
Provide successful learning opportunities
Support
Utilization of developmental principles in dealing with patients/clients, the selection of
activities and the design of programmes for the treatment of other aims
o OT aims to facilitate optimal growth
o Via enabling developmental tasks & skills appropriate to age & stage of
development
Socially, physically, psychologically, neuro-physiologically
o Through activities & interpersonal relationships
o *Life tasks → specific tasks that each individual needs to successfully perform
in order to develop
Use of strength-based approach in intervention (emphasis on strength)
o OT needs to enhance & promote function and participation → not just focus
on deficits
Recognize the strengths of the person and assess strengths to attain
new levels of participation
o What are some strengths that promote growth & participation?
Strong self-esteem Emotional regulation
Positive mental health Temperament
Positive communication Coping strategies
Intelligence Attentions
Give meaningful choices
Collaborate with the child / person to define intervention goals
o In line w/ client-centered practice
o Motivation, attitude & self-perception are core to participation in
environmental demands and attempts to learn skills
o Supportive relationships in challenging situations will enhance learning and
skill development.
Family resources
Love
Nurturance
Sense of safety and security
Family cohesion and harmony
High quality relationship with at least one person – high levels
of warmth; openness and low level of conflicts
