This document includes: The scentence, Phrase,clauses,punctuation , parts of speech (noun,adjectives,verbs, mood of the verb,participles,gerunds,articles), active and passive voice,figures of speech,levels of language,abbreviations,comprehension.
The sentence
1. Simple sentence: 1 finite verb and deals with 1 idea
2. Compound: 2 or more finite verbs. May be made by 2 simple sentences joined by a conjunction
3. Complex sentence: One main clause, multiple subordinate clauses that provide extra information.
4. Compound-complex: Sentences consist of at least two independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
A. periodic sentences: the main point (independent clause) occurs at the end of the sentence after one or more side points
(dependent clauses) lead up to the main point.
- To believe your thoughts, to believe that what is true for you in your private heart is true for all men, that is genius.
B. Loose sentence: In loose sentences, the independent clause is at the beginning, followed by one or more dependent clauses
- I knew I had found a friend in the woman, who herself was a lonely soul, never having known the love of man or child.
Subject: who,what we are talking about
Predicate: expands the subject and always begins with the verb
1. She enjoys swimming in the ocean. simple
2. The dog barked loudly, and the cat ran away. Compound
3. Although it was raining, they went for a walk in the park. Complex
4. Laura forgot her friend’s birthday, so she sent her a card when she finally remembered. compound-complex
Phrases
- A fragment of a sentence that deals with an idea cannot stand alone, no finite verb
1. Adjectival phrase- tell us more about the noun
2. Noun phrase- who or what in connection with the noun
3. Adverbial: modify the verb
→the girl entered the room at nine o’clock. ( The girl entered the room is a full sentence)
→The girl in the room was reading a book.
Clauses
- Group of words containing a finite verb, a single idea
1. The main clause: the main idea of the sentence, can stand alone and make full sense
2. The subordinate clause: dependent on the main clause for meaning (usually separated by a comma)
⇨noun clause: perform the same act as the noun. Identify: can be replaced by it or that, what or who
>What they learnt at school helped them in the workplace.
⇨Adjectival clause: always qualifies a word or words in the main clause. Identify: who, whom, whose, that
>The girl who had the longest hair won the beauty competition
⇨Adverbial clause: perform the same as adverbs
Examples:
1. After the rain stopped, the sun appeared. Adverbial subordinate clause
2. Sarah went to the store to buy some groceries. Adverbial phrase
3. Although he studied hard for the exam, John didn't perform well. Adverbial subordinate clause
4. Running in the park every morning, Lisa improves her health. Adverbial subordinate clause
, Punctuation
1. Capital letters:
- Indicate a proper noun or proper adjective
- The main words in the titles of the book: Lord of the Flies
- Always the first word in directed speech
2. Full stops:
- Abbreviations
3. Commas:
- Separate words in a list
- Indicate where one phrase or clause ends and the other begins
- Indicate additional information
4. Semicolon:
- A long pause that equally balances two opposing or parallel ideas, Indication of opposite ideas (antithesis)
- Join 2 main clauses where there is no conjunction
5. Exclamation mark:
- Used to accentuate and strengthen the tone of a statement
6. Quotation marks
- Quotation marks are used to “excuse” oneself of slang or colloquial language
- Metaphoric use
7. Parenthesis (brackets):
- An explanation or additional information
8. Hyphen:
- Links prefixes to words and helps to differentiate meaning: remake and re-make
- Facilitate punctuation and spelling, used when a prefix begins with a vowel and the following word does
- Words that cannot be completed on the line are joined to the next with a hyphen
9. Dash:
- Separates parts of a sentence and forces us to pause,c leading to a climax or anti-climax
- Separates a comment or afterthought from the rest of the sentence
10. Ellipsis:
- Indicates a sentence is not complete or something has been omitted
- We can usually guess the meaning from the context of the sentence
11. The apostrophe
A. Contractions
B. Possession
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